Gender Competent Public Law and Policies

178 Pages·2023·3.696 MB·English

by  Marko Davinić, Svetislav Kostić

Gender Perspectives in Law 2
Marko Davinić
Svetislav Kostić Editors
Gender
Competent Public
Law and Policies
Gender Perspectives in Law
Volume 2
SeriesEditors
DragicaVujadinović,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,Serbia
IvanaKrstić,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,Serbia
The series ‘Gender Perspectives in Law’ discusses all-encompassing gender-
competent legal questions. Having a gender-competent approach is required when
considering the highest values and normative standards of modern international,
European,andnationallaw.Raisingawarenessaboutgenderequalityissuesmeans
investing in the creation, interpretation, and implementation of legislation that is
more fair, just, and equitable and will also contribute to a comprehensive under-
standing of social reality, as well as to gender-competent political, legal and eco-
nomicdecision-makingandpublicpolicies.
The series accepts monographs focusing on a specific topic, as well as edited
collectionsofarticlescoveringaspecificthemeorcollectionsofarticles.
ć (cid:129) ć
Marko Davini Svetislav Kosti
Editors
Gender Competent Public
Law and Policies
Editors
MarkoDavinić SvetislavKostić
UniversityofBelgrade UniversityofBelgrade
Belgrade,Serbia Belgrade,Serbia
ThisprojecthasbeenfundedwithsupportfromtheEuropeanCommission.Thispublication
[communication]reflectstheviewsonlyoftheauthor,andtheCommissioncannotbeheld
responsibleforanyusewhichmaybemadeoftheinformationcontainedtherein.
ISSN2731-8346 ISSN2731-8354 (electronic)
GenderPerspectivesinLaw
ISBN978-3-031-14705-0 ISBN978-3-031-14706-7 (eBook)
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Preface
The book series Gender Perspectives in Law is a systemic attempt to provide
all-encompassing gender-competent legal knowledge. The term gender-competent
legalknowledgeisusedtoaccentuatethereconsiderationofdifferentfieldsoflegal
knowledge from the point of gender equality approach and with offering relevant
andconvincingargumentsinthatregard.Thistermissometimesreplacedwiththe
term “gender-sensitive,” which also refers to awareness about the importance of
gender equality approach and to its implementing in theoretical and scientific
knowledge production. Having a gender-competent approach in legal education is
required when considering the highest values and normative standards of modern
international,European,andnationallaw.Raisingawarenessaboutgenderequality
issues among researchers and academic scholars in the field of law and other
multidisciplinary fields relevant for legal theory and practice, educating in a
gender-sensitive manner law students (future lawyers, judges, prosecutors, public
officials, members of parliament, and governmental bodies), as well as students of
humanities-social sciences, means investing in the creation, interpretation, and
implementation of legislation that ismore fair, just,and equitable. Prosecutors and
judgesinparticular,butalso otherlegalprofessionalsinallfieldsoflegalpractice,
publicadministration,andpolicydecision-makingneedtobetrainedandsensitized
inordertoencourageagender-sensitiveapproach.Thiswillcontributetoamorerich
and comprehensive understanding of social reality, as well as to gender-competent
political,legal,andeconomicdecision-makingandpublicpolicies.Inotherwords,it
meansinvestingintothefuturebasedonmoregenderjusticeandmoresocialjustice
andhumanrightsprotectioningeneral.Intheend,itwillhelpfulfilltheessenceof
contemporarylaw—equalrespectandprotectionforallindividuals,whichleadsto
theirequalopportunitiesanddiminishesthepossibilityofgenderdiscrimination.
This book series, Gender Perspectives in Law, attempts to cover all relevant
subjects of legal knowledge from a gender equality perspective. The plural desig-
nation is entitled because there is a plurality of feminist understanding of gender
equality issues generally speaking and insofar also within the law. The call for
papers was open for professionals in legal, political, sociological, and historical
v
vi Preface
fields of interest with an attempt to cover, as much as possible, specific relevant
topics,inordertoprovideanoverviewofthegendercompetentdeconstructingand
reconsidering the way they are articulated in the dominant thought, i.e. the main-
stream within the law. The authors in the series’ volumes try to establish a gender
equalityapproachtodifferent fields of lawwhiletaking into considerationspecific
issues of their interest and attempting to consider chosen different aspects of legal
knowledgeandpracticeinaparadigmaticgender-competentmanner.Theyattempt
tocriticallyreconsiderthedominantmoldsoflegalknowledgeandpresentinnova-
tive gender-sensitive and gender-competent insights relating to different issues
withinallfieldsoflaw,inordertointroducenewresearchtopicsrelevantforgender
equalityinlaw,as well asto stimulatethe development ofa legal and institutional
framework for achieving gender equality in real life. The degree to which main-
streamknowledgehasbeenreconsideredfromagenderequalityperspectivediffers
between contributors. Moreover, a variety of relevant legal subjects and other
closelyrelatedsubjectmattersarecoveredinvaryingdegreesbytheselectedtexts.
The book series Gender Perspectives in Law encouraged scholars and experts
fromdifferentfieldsoflawandhumanities-socialsciencestoreconstructtheirlegal
andmultidisciplinaryknowledgefromthestandpointofgenderequality.Thisbook
series shouldinspirefurtherattemptsofthiskind,asareconsiderationoflegaland
multidisciplinary knowledge from a gender perspective has become an axiomatic
task.Ifcontemporarylawisdefinedprimarilyfromthehumanrightspointofview,
thenitisnecessarytotakeagenderequalityperspective;thehumanrightsfounda-
tion of law cannot be regarded as the civilizational standard without also incorpo-
ratingwomen’srightsandgenderequalityapproachingeneral,articulatingthemin
themainstreamlegalandpoliticalthought,andeliminatinggender-basedbiasesand
discriminationwithinthedominantlegalsystems.ThebookseriesGenderperspec-
tivesinLawrepresentstheaddedvaluetotheprojectErasmus+Strategicpartnership
in Higher Education, called “New Quality in Education for gender equality -
Strategic Partnership for the development of Master’s Study program LAW AND
GENDER-LAWGEM”.
ThesecondbookintheseriesGenderPerspectivesinLaw,whichistitledGender
Competent Public Law and Policies, offers a new perspective on public law and
publicpolicies.Thecollectionofpapersbeginswithaverysophisticateddiscussion
ongender perspectives inconstitutionallaw,whichcansupportgenderjustice,but
also perpetuate patriarchal norms. The book covers an analysis of the role of the
European Ombudsman in the area of gender discrimination. Particular attention is
giventotheimportanceofmainstreaminggenderintopublicpolicies.Thus,thelegal
and institutional frameworks of Spain and Serbia are presented, which can be an
inspirationtosomeothercountries.Anotherimportantaspectcoveredinthebookis
ananalysisofsystemicdifferencesbetweentheaveragewagesofwomenandmenin
the six Western Balkans countries. The book offers a discussion on female genital
mutilation as a highly gendered crime based on extreme versions of the rigid
patriarchalethnicandreligiousnormsandcustoms.Itisanalyzedthroughthelenses
of the Istanbul Convention, as a tool to tackle violence against women. Particular
attention is given to the femicide, its definitions, forms, and phenomenological
Preface vii
characteristics. Femicide has been acknowledged recently and is still facing inade-
quate judicial response in many countries. A special focus is given to German and
Serbianexperiencesinacknowledgingfemicideandcombatingitthroughdifferent
measures.Finally,theimportanceofstalkinglawshasbeenpresented,asstalkingis
ahighlygenderedcrimeandmanystatesfailtocombatitadequately.Thecollection
ofessaysofferedinthisbookwillbeofinteresttoallthoseworkinginthefieldof
publiclaw,andpolicymakers,aswellastostudentsandacademicswhocanbroaden
and deepen their research on different legal issues of public law and policies from
genderperspectives.
Thepapersdealwithverydifferenttopicsrelatedtothefieldofpubliclaw.The
converging aim and axis is gender equality—its clarification, articulation, and
promotionwithinpubliclawtheoryandpractice.Interestingandindicativeenough
isthefactthatthereareauthorsfromdifferentcountriesandcontinents.Theglobal
relevanceofthegenderequalityperspectiveinlegaleducation,legislation,andlegal
professions has been expressed and confirmed in the content and authorship of
thisbook.
This book includes papers written by Susanne Baer, Marko Davinić, Branko
Radulović and Vanesa Hervías-Parejo, Nikola Ilić, Ivana Marković, Aleida Luján
Pinelo,KosanaBekerandVidaVilić,andSusanneStrandandRamunėJakštienė.
Susanne Baer considers constitutional law or constitutionalism in terms of its
twofoldrole:itcanhelpachievegenderjustice,butitcanalsoperpetuatepatriarchal
norms.Constitutionalismhasbeenfacedwithtremendousdevelopmentsininterna-
tionallawregardingwomen’srights,anditcaneitherusethesechangesforgender
equality purposes or abuse them as decorum. According to the author, the contro-
versies discussed in the paper affect both fundamental rights and the foundational
structuresofconstitutionalism.Shestatesthattakinggenderintoaccountrequiresan
understanding of constitutional law’s gendered elements, grounded in the diverse
andchangingrealitiesinwhichpeoplelive.Thisincludeswomendisadvantagedby
heteronormative stereotypes, as well as men defined by hegemonic masculinity,
peoplelabeledassexualminoritiesbecause theydeviatefromagenderednorm,as
wellastranssexualandintersexualpeoplewhochallengethenotionofnaturalsexual
difference,whichinformsmuchofsexdiscrimination.Theauthorcriticallyremarks
thatgenderhasrarelybeensystematicallystudiedinconstitutionallaw,atleastnotin
mainstream legal studies. She also assumes that feminist legal gender studies and
similarcriticalworkexposethenatureofsexinequalityintheoriesofthestateandin
the design of constitutions, and thus stimulate discussing gender as a concern in
constitutiondraftingaswell asinconstitutional lawaspracticedtoday. Theauthor
admitsthatfeministcriticalreconsiderationofconstitutionallawallowsustobetter
understand what constitutional law does to perpetuate sex inequality, and what
constitutionallawcandotoendit,therebystrengtheninggenderjustice.Theauthor
addresses the legal subject and citizenship, the meaning of equality, intersectional
inequalities, and diversity in law; she also considers issues of violence and the
oppressive ideas of the private realm of marriage and the family, as well as
participation and representation in public matters. In addition, she addresses the
structural aspects of constitutionalism, namely democracy, the rule of law, the
viii Preface
welfare state, and, from more recently also actual aspects—sustainability and the
environmentwelivein.ConsideringconstitutionalismincontextleadsBaertoraise
issues of legitimacy, the public-private distinction, post-national constitutionalism,
and the challenge of merely decorative constitutional law. The fundamental rights
discussion has extended from the legal subject to the relationship between dignity,
liberty,andequality,andtheunderstandingofequalityanddiversity.Theauthoralso
raisesthequestionofthefutureofconstitutionalism.
MarkoDavinićanalyzestheroleandcontributionoftheEuropeanOmbudsman
intheareaofgenderdiscrimination.Hisanalysisismainlybasedoncasestudies,as
well as on the European Ombudsman’s strategic initiative in this area. The author
remindsreadersthatEuropeanUnioncitizenswhoconsiderbeingvictimsofgender
discriminationattheEUlevelcanaddresstheCourtofJusticeoftheEU(CJEU),as
the main authority regarding the interpretation and proper implementation of EU
law.However,theyalsohavetheopportunitytoaddresstheEuropeanOmbudsman
regardinggender discrimination committedbyEUinstitutions,bodies,offices,and
agencies.Theauthoranalyzesthetopicwithinthreemainparts:thefirstpartoutlines
EU legislation on gender equality; the second part is dedicated to the origin and
developmentoftheEuropeanOmbudsmananditsbasiccompetencies;finally,inthe
third, main part, the most important cases from European Ombudsman’s practice
regardinggenderequalityandprotectionagainstgenderdiscriminationareanalyzed.
The author points out that unlike most of the national ombudsmen who represent
onlyanadditionalmeansofcontrolinrelationtothejudicialauthorities(duetothe
provisionsonexhaustionofalllegalremedies),thisisnotthecaseattheEUlevel.
TherecoursetotheCJEU(whichisinprogressorcompleted)precludessubsequent
activities of the European Ombudsman in the same case. This means that citizens
and organizations need to choose between addressing the CJEU and the European
Ombudsman, considering the basic features and procedures of both these institu-
tions. Notwithstanding the small number of cases the European Ombudsman has
dealt with in the area of gender discrimination since its foundation, this institution
hasmanagedtoopenmany importantquestions andtoimprovethepracticeofEU
institutions, bodies, offices, and agencies regarding gender equality within the
European Union. In this way, Davinić concludes that it has become a significant
complementary tool in the protection of gender equality and the elimination of
genderdiscriminationatthesupranationallevel.
BrankoRadulovicandVanesaHerviascontributedwithatextonmainstreaming
gender into public policies from the perspective of Spain and Serbia. The authors
aimtohighlightaspectsoftheSpanishsystemongendermainstreamingthatcanbe
successfully transferred to Serbia and similar countries. The comparison between
these two countries is based on the fact that Spain ranks among the top European
countries according to the Gender Equality Index, while Serbia lags under the EU
averageinoverallgenderequality.Furthermore,whileSpainhasdevelopedmethods
to strengthen the integration of the gender perspective in all government programs
and policies, Serbia still doesnothave a systemic approach to introducing gender-
relatedaspectsinpublicpolicies.Theauthorsfirstpresentthehistoricalbackground
and key obstacles to gender mainstreaming in both countries. They then present a
Preface ix
legal and institutionalframework for gender equality and gender mainstreaming in
their countries. The main part deals with Spanish gender mainstreaming tools and
policymakingmeasures.Thefollowingbestpracticesarepresented:strategicplans,
equalityplansincompanies,corporateequalityawardsandcorporatesocialrespon-
sibility policies, equality plans in companies, business award in equality, gender
mainstreaming programs, education laws that mention the fulfillment of effective
genderequalityandequalityofresults,urgentmeasuresinthelaboragainsttheglass
ceiling,genderimpactreports,gender-responsivebudgeting,andgenderquotas.The
authors highlight these measures as those that had a substantial effect and enabled
effectivegendermainstreaminginpublicpolicymakinginSpain.Finally,theauthors
assesslessonsfromtheSpanishexperiencethatarerelevantforSerbiatoimplement
gender-competent public policies. Some existing policies in Serbia are reviewed,
such as annual work gender equality plans or programs, gender equality risk
managementplans,balancedgenderrepresentationrequirementsinthemanagement
andsupervisoryboards,gender(equality)impactassessment,andthetoolrelatedto
thecollectionanddisseminationofrelevantdatadisaggregatedbygender.
Nikola Ilić analyzes the underlying causes of the gender pay gap in WB6
countries.Theauthorassumesthatingendereconomics,therearethreerootcauses
of the gender pay gap: human capital, compensating differentials, and discrimina-
tion.Onaverage,mencanearnmorethanwomenduetotheirknowledgeandskills,
but also due to the discrimination against women in the labor market and working
place. A closer analysis of relevant similarities and dissimilarities between WB6
countries, and their social and legal norms, combined with the gender economics
approach, provides a plausible answer to the question of underlying causes. Simi-
larities in the gender pay gap are a result of the shared history of gender discrimi-
nationduetopatriarchalheredity,sharedpoliticalculture,sharedeconomicculture,
and human capital or quality tied to individual productivity capacity. The author
considers a few possible influencing factors regarding gender pay gap. Today,
women are more likely to attend and graduate from university than men, meaning
thattheexistinggenderpaygapcannotbeexplainedbytheeducationlevel.Onthe
otherside,on-the-jobtrainingandworkexperiencecanexplainthegenderpaygap
toacertainextent,asmenaremorelikelytoreceiveon-the-jobtrainingthanwomen.
Moreover,menaremorelikelytohavecontinuityatthesamejobandthusgetmore
trainingandexperiencethanwomen,asaresultofpregnancyandmaternityleave.In
that circumstance, men are able to increase their human capital and be more
productive than women. However, this temporary and relatively small inequality
inhumancapitalcannotexplainwhywomenconsistentlyearnlessthanmeninWB6
countries, even before taking pregnancy and maternity leave. The author thus
considers other possible causes of the gender pay gap, such as compensating
differentials and discrimination. Discrimination against women undoubtedly exists
in those countries, and it seems as one of the possible underlying causes for the
considerablegenderpaygap.Themaincauseisdiscriminationbasedontheshared
history of patriarchy and gender segregation, which is a consequence of the men-
tionedhistoricalcircumstancesandunwrittenrulesinpoliticsandeconomics.These
rules were socially acceptable and tolerated for such a long time that even today,