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Melvin Ember and Carol R. Ember, Editors
E B
D I T O R I A L O A R D
EDITORS IN CHIEF
MELVIN EMBER,President, Human Relations Area Files
CAROL R. EMBER,Executive Director, Human Relations Area Files
ADVISORY BOARD
H. RUSSELL BERNARD,University of Florida
E. PAUL DURRENBERGER,Pennsylvania State University
STEVAN HARRELL,University of Washington
PAUL HOCKINGS,University of Illinois, Chicago
CONRAD P. KOTTAK,University of Michigan
LOUISE D. LENNIHAN,City University of New York
SUSAN M. PARMAN,California State University, Fullerton
PAULA L. W. SABLOFF,University of Pennsylvania
NORMAN E. WHITTEN, JR.,University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Countries and Their Cultureswas prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations
Area Files, Inc. (HRAF) at Yale University. The foremost international research organization in the field of
cultural anthropology, HRAF is a not-for-profit consortium of 19 Sponsoring Member institutions and
more than 400 active and inactive Associate Member institutions in nearly 40 countries. The mission of
HRAF is to provide information that facilitates the cross-cultural study of human behavior, society, and
culture. The HRAF Collection of Ethnography, which has been building since 1949, contains nearly one
million pages of information, indexed according to more than 700 subject categories, on the cultures of the
world. An increasing portion of the Collection of Ethnography, which now covers more than 365 cultures,
is accessible via the World Wide Web to member institutions. The HRAF Collection of Archaeology, the first
installment of which appeared in 1999, is also accessible on the Web to those member institutions opting
to receive it.
ii
Countries and Their Cultures
Copyright © 2001 Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of Gale Group
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the Publisher.
Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA
1633 Broadway 27500 Drake Rd.
New York, NY 10019 Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Countries and their cultures / Melvin Ember and Carol R. Ember, editors.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-864950-8 (set : hc.)
1. Ethnology-Encyclopedias. I. Ember, Melvin. II. Ember, Carol R.
GN307 .C68 2001
306’.03-dc21 2001030188
Volume 1: 0-02-864947-8
Volume 2: 0-02-864948-6
Volume 3: 0-02-864949-4
Volume 4: 0-02-864946-X
Printed in the United States of America
Printing number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Front cover photos (clockwise from top): Aymara man with llamas © Gian Berto Vanni/Corbis; Japanese
kindergarten students © Don Stevenson/Mira; Hooded men at Oaxaca Festival © Liba Taylor/Corbis; Kava
Ceremony, Fiji © Charles & Josette Lenars/Corbis; Wedding service in a Russian Orthodox church © Dean
Conger/Corbis; Egyptian ranger battalion demonstration © Corbis; Boy eating lobster at Friendship Regatta
festivities © Dean Conger/Corbis; Akha villagers perform a Chi Ji Tsi ritual © Michael Freeman/Corbis.
Background:Desert Rose block print by Arlinka Blair © Jonathan Blair/Corbis.
iv
C
O N T E N T S
Editorial and Production Staff . . . vi
Preface . . . vii
Alphabetical List of Articles . . . xi
Directory of Contributors . . . xv
Countries and Their Cultures . . . 1
Photo Credits . . . 2491
Index . . . 2501
v
E P S
D I T O R I A L A N D R O D U C T I O N TA F F
MONICA M. HUBBARD,Senior Editor ELIZABETH PILETTE, NANCY K. SHERIDAN,Data Capture
Assistants
SHAWN BEALL, CINDY CLENDENON, KRISTEN HART, KIM
HUNT, RACHEL KAIN, MATTHEW MAY, MARK MIKULA, LYNNE MADAY, AMY SUCHOWSKI,Indexing Specialists
KATE MILLSON, BRAD MORGAN, ANNA NESBITT,
REBECCA PARKS, POLLY RAPP,Contributing Editors EVI SEOUD,Assistant Manager, Composition
KELLY A. QUIN,Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content RITA WIMBERLEY,Senior Buyer
PAM REED,Imaging Coordinator PAMELA A.E. GALBREATH,Senior Art Director
CHRISTINE O’BRYAN,Graphics Specialist LISA CHOVNICK,Cover Designer
MARGARET CHAMBERLAIN,Permissions Specialist
BEVERLY JENDROWSKI,Data Capture Specialist MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA
ELLY DICKASON,Publisher
vi
P
R E F A C E
When the Soviet Union broke apart, most of the cally unified, before the colonial power imposed
world was stunned. Many thought of the Soviet control over the whole area. The major new com-
Union as a very powerful country, and until the monality was that the various cultures had to deal
breakup most gave very little thought to the many with a new overarching political authority, the
different and geographically separate cultures that colonial authority. Often, the eventual achievement
comprised the Soviet Union. Anthropologists were of independence was not sufficient to create much
not as surprised by the breakup because they knew in the way of a national culture. Only time will tell
that the Soviet Union contained a large number of whether these new political entities will endure and
culturally diverse groups of people, such as whether national cultures will develop.
Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Kazakhs, In a country with many cultures, the emer-
among many others. Most of the countries that gence of a common culture can occur gradually
became independent after the breakup of the Soviet and peacefully as people interact over time or when
Union—Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Uzbekistan, immigrants voluntarily assimilate to a dominant
etc.—were populated largely by people speaking a culture. More often than not, cultural dominance
particular language and sharing a particular cul- emerges in the context of one group having supe-
ture. In retrospect, if more people had known that rior power over the others. Africans brought as
there wasn’t much of a shared culture in what we slaves to what is now the United States did not
formerly called the Soviet Union, perhaps the choose to come, nor did Native Americans choose
breakup would not have been so surprising. This is to have their lands taken away or their children
not to say that the breakup was caused solely by sent away to boarding school to learn the ways of
cultural differences. The fact of the matter is that the dominant culture. But even without force,
social scientists are still far from understanding sheer differences in numbers can have profound
what accounts for why a country splits apart, and effects. There is little doubt that where a particular
why the break-up may be violent or peaceful. We ethnic group vastly outnumbers others in the
do know, however, that if we want to understand country, the culture of that ethnic group is likely to
what happens to a country, it is important to pay become dominant. Examples are the Han of China
attention to how the different cultures in the coun- and the Russians of Russia.
try get along and how much of a national culture Multiculturalism is quite characteristic of most
has developed. of today’s countries, but countries vary greatly in
The focus of Countries and Their Cultures is on the degree to which ethnic groups co-exist peace-
the cultures of the countries around the world, fully and in the degree to which diversity of culture
what is and what is not commonly shared cultur- is tolerated and even sometimes celebrated.
ally by the people who live in a country. As the Germany for a long time (until the 1930s) was tol-
reader will see, some countries have a distinctive erant of Jews, but then it changed and extermi-
national culture. That is, most of the people in the nated them in the 1940s. Why ethnic conflict
country share a distinctive set of attitudes, beliefs, emerges at some times and in some places is only
values, and practices. Other countries hardly have beginning to be understood.
a shared culture, and maybe not even a dominant Cultural anthropology and the other social sci-
one. Many of these culturally diverse countries like ences can help us understand. Cultural anthropol-
Nigeria and Kenya had their political unity imposed ogy got started as a discipline when people began
upon them by colonialism. There were hundreds of to realize, with imperialism and colonialism, that
different cultures, many of them not even politi- the ways of life of people around the world varied
vii
PREFACE
enormously. In the beginning of the twentieth cen- more than 200 contributors-social scientists
tury, there were still many cultures that depended (anthropologists largely, but also sociologists, his-
on hunting, gathering, and fishing, with no agri- torians, geographers, and political scientists) as
culture or industry. Villages in many places were well as others who usually have firsthand experi-
hardly linked to their neighbors, much less to ence in the countries they write about and know
state-type polities in the outside world. The world’s the language or lingua franca of that country.
cultural diversity was greater and more frag- Thus they are able to provide integrated, holistic
mented than it is today. Now the world is a multi- descriptions of the countries, not just facts. Our
plicity of nation-states, multicultural (multiethnic) aim was to leave the reader with a real sense of
polities that formed as little or larger empires, or as what it is like to live in a particular country.
products of colonialism. In an earlier reference
Our list of countries consists largely of politi-
work, the 10-volume Encyclopedia of World Cultures
cally independent entities. However, we have
(produced under the auspices of the Human
included some geographically separate entities that
Relations Area Files [HRAF] and published by G.K.
are politically part of other countries. Examples are
Hall/Macmillan), the focus was on the cultures
Anguilla and Bermuda, which are dependent terri-
typically studied by anthropologists. A different
tories of the United Kingdom; French Guiana and
language, not shared by neighbors, is often a key
Guadaloupe, which are French overseas depart-
defining feature of a group of people who share (or
ments; and Hong Kong, which is a special admin-
who shared) a culture. Thus, countries and their
istrative region of China. Our advisors also
usual multiplicity of cultures were not the focus of
suggested we add entries for major divisions of the
that encyclopedia.
United Kingdom: England, Northern Ireland,
In this reference work, we focus on the cultures
Scotland, and Wales.
of countries. We have asked our authors to describe
Articles all follow the same format to provide
what is culturally universal in the country they are
maximum comparability. Countries with small
writing about and what varies by ethnic group,
populations have shorter entries; those with large
region, and class. Information on widely-shared
populations or complex ethnic composition are
behavior and values, as well as on cultural varia-
longer in length to accommodate the complexity.
tion within the country, is now recognized as
important to understanding politics, civil rights,
business opportunities, and many other aspects of
USING COUNTRIES AND THEIR CULTURES
life in a country. Our focus on culture makes
Countries and Their Culturesunique. No other single This reference work is meant to be used by a vari-
reference work comes close to matching the range ety of people for a variety of purposes. It can be
of cultural information offered in these volumes. used both to gain a general understanding of a
Another unique feature of Countries and Their country and its culture(s), and to find a specific
Cultures is the discussions of “do’s” and “don’ts” piece of information by looking it up under the rel-
for a culture, including what to make “small talk” evant subheading. It can also be used to learn about
about and what notto talk about. For example, vis- a particular region of the world and the social, eco-
itors to the United States may be familiar with nomic, and political forces that have shaped the
much of American culture, but if they divulge the cultures of the countries in that region. We provide
real state of their health and feelings to the first a substantial bibliography at the end of each coun-
American who asks “How are you?,” they have try entry.
much to learn about “small talk” in the United Beyond being a basic reference resource,
States. Countries and Their Culturesalso serves readers with
A third unique feature of Countries and Their more focused needs. For researchers interested in
Cultures is the discussion of ethnic relations in a comparing countries and their cultures, this work
country, including material on whether one partic- provides information that can guide the selection of
ular ethnic group became dominant or whether a particular countries for further study. For those
national culture developed out of a community of interested in international studies, the bibliogra-
disparate cultures. In some cases, particularly in phies in each entry can lead one quickly to the rel-
newly developing nations, there is relatively little evant social science literature as well as providing a
shared culture, and so there may be little “national” state-of-the-art assessment of knowledge about
culture. the world’s countries and their cultures. For cur-
We are able to provide the information con- riculum developers and teachers seeking to interna-
tained in these volumes through the efforts of tionalize the curriculum, this work is a basic
viii
PREFACE
reference and educational resource as well as a authors have followed a standardized outline, con-
directory to other materials. For government offi- structed by the editors with the help of the board
cials, it is a repository of information not likely to of advisors, so that each summary provides infor-
be available in any other single publication; in mation on a core list of topics. The authors, how-
some cases the information provided here is not ever, had some leeway in deciding how much
available at all elsewhere. For students, from high attention was to be given each topic and whether
school through graduate school, it provides back- additional information should be included.
ground and bibliographic information for term
papers and class projects. And for travelers, it pro-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
vides an introduction to the ways of life in any
country they may be visiting. There are many people to thank for their contribu-
tions. Elly Dickason at Macmillan Reference played
an important role in the initial conception of the
FORMAT OF THE VOLUMES project. The Board of Advisors reviewed the list of
countries, made valuable suggestions about the
The work comprises four volumes, with the coun-
outline of the entries, and suggested potential
try entries ordered alphabetically. A total of 225
authors. We want to thank Kirsten Jensen for her
countries are described. In addition to the cultural
help in choosing photographs. For managing the
summaries, there are country maps, photographs,
project at Macmillan, we are indebted to Monica
and an index.
Hubbard. We are particularly grateful for her good
The descriptive summaries of the countries and humor and efficiency. Most of all we thank the
their cultures provide the heart of the work. Each contributors for describing the countries and their
summary provides a mix of demographic, histori- cultures so well.
cal, social, economic, political, and religious infor-
mation on the country. The emphasis is cultural; MELVIN EMBER, PRESIDENT
that is, the summaries focus on the ways of life of CAROL R. EMBER, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
the people, and the main forces affecting them. The HUMAN RELATIONS AREA FILES AT YALE UNIVERSITY
ix
A L A
L P H A B E T I C A L I S T O F R T I C L E S
VOLUME 1 Bulgaria (Barbara A. Cellarius and Tim Pilbrow)
Burkina Faso (Richard Kuba and Pierre Claver Hien)
Burma (Michael C. Howard)
Burundi (Eleanor Stanford)
A
Afghanistan (Alessandro Monsutti)
C
Albania (Robert Elsie)
Algeria (Eleanor Stanford) Cambodia (John Marston)
American Samoa (Lowell D. Holmes and Ellen Cameroon (Pamela Feldman-Savelsberg)
Rhoads Holmes) Canada (Douglass Drozdow-St. Christian)
Andorra (Joan J. Pujadas) Cape Verde (Eleanor Stanford)
Angola (Inge Brinkman) Cayman Islands (Susan W. Peters)
Anguilla (M. Cameron Arnold) Central African Republic (William J. Samarin)
Antigua and Barbuda (Paget Henry) Chad (Jon G. Abbink)
Argentina (Carmen Alicia Ferradas) Chile (Patricio Silva)
Armenia (Sima Aprahamian)
China (Eleanor Stanford)
Aruba (Luc Alofs)
Colombia (Samuel Márquez and Douglas C.
Australia (Loretta Baldassar and David S. Trigger) Broadfield)
Austria (Robert H. Griffin and Ann H. Shurgin)
Comoros (Sophie Blanchy)
Azerbaijan (Hülya Demirdirek)
Democratic Republic of Congo (Jennifer Ziemke)
Republic of Congo (David Matuskey)
Cook Islands (Eleanor Stanford)
B
Costa Rica (Marc Edelman)
Bahamas (Alan LaFlamme) Côte d’Ivoire (Gina Misiroglu)
Bahrain (Eleanor Stanford) Croatia (Mary Kay Gilliland)
Bangladesh (Michael S. Harris) Cuba (G. Derrick Hodge)
Barbados (W. Penn Handwerker) Cyprus (Yiannis Papadakis)
Belarus (Ludomir Lozny)
Czech Republic (Zdenek Salzmann)
Belgium (Jean de Lannoy and Ruben A. Lombaert)
Belize (Joseph O. Palacio)
Benin (Josephine Caldwell Ryan)
Bermuda (Eleanor Stanford and Andrew Sussman)
Bhutan (Connie Howard) VOLUME 2
Bolivia (Harry Sanabria)
Bosnia and Hercegovina (Eleanor Stanford)
Botswana (Deborah Durham)
D
Brazil (Maxine L. Margolis, Maria Enedina, and
Jason M. Fox) Denmark (Erling Høg and Helle Johannessen)
British Virgin Islands (Colleen Ballerino Cohen and Djibouti (Jon G. Abbink)
Michael E. O’Neal) Dominica (Amy L. Paugh)
Brunei Darussalam (Allen R. Maxwell) Dominican Republic (Elizabeth Van Epps Garlo)
xi
