Argentina-Brasile

105 Pages·2014·0.53 MB·Italian

Corso di Laurea magistrale
in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate
(International Relations)
Tesi di Laurea
Argentina-Brasile: studio
comparativo sulle dittature ed i
processi di democratizzazione
Relatore
Ch. Prof. Luis Fernando Beneduzi
Correlatore
Ch. Prof. Duccio Basosi
Laureando
Michele Lucchini
Matricola 807431
Anno Accademico
2013/2014
“Ogni azione storica ha luogo in condizioni date che non rappresentano solo
vincoli ma anche opportunità. Gli uomini scelgono nell’incertezza, consapevoli
in modesta misura delle conseguenze e non in grado di padroneggiarle. La
conoscenza sociologica può aumentare questa consapevolezza ma soltanto la
storia comparata rende conto appieno delle alternative possibili. Essa pone in
luce le tensioni e i conflitti esistenti in ogni processo tra tendenze di segno
opposto che si affermano di volta in volta; e lo fa per mezzo di polarità
concettuali in grado di rappresentare soluzioni alternative in cui assumono
forma concreta fenomeni e problemi universali”.

Pietro Rossi

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INDICE
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................4
INTRODUZIONE..........................................................................................................................................9
1. IL REGIME MILITARE BRASILIANO: LEGALITÀ E PERFORMANCE ECONOMICHE............18
a. PREMESSE ALL’ANALISI DELLA STORIA DELLA DITTATURA BRASILIANA .................................18
b. VERSO IL GOLPE CIVILE-MILITARE.........................................................................................................19
c. I MILITARI AL POTERE: UNA MODERATA REPRESSIONE E L’ATTENZIONE PER LE ISTITUZIONI
E L’ECONOMIA....................................................................................................................................................23
d. I DUROS AL COMANDO: REPRESSIONE E MIRACOLO ECONOMICO................................................27
e. LA FASE FINALE: UN’ “ABERTURA LENTA, GRADATIVA E SEGURA”................................................32
f. IL RITORNO ALLA DEMOCRAZIA: TANCREDO, SARNEY e COLLOR.................................................38
2. LE ESPERIENZE MILITARI ARGENTINE: DALLA RIVOLUZIONE ARGENTINA AL PROCESO
DE REORGANIZACIÓN NACIONAL.......................................................................................................41
a. L’AVVENTO DEI MILITARI NEL CONTESTO DELLA GUERRA FREDDA............................................41
b. LA DITTATURA..............................................................................................................................................43
c. IL RITORNO DEL PERONISMO...................................................................................................................45
d. IL TERRORISMO DI STATO DURANTE IL “TRIENIO SOMBRÍO”.......................................................48
e. LA GRANDE TRASFORMAZIONE DELL’ECONOMIA ARGENTINA......................................................50
f. GLI SPIRAGLI D’APERTURA E LA RINASCITA DELL’OPPOSIZIONE...................................................52
g. L’ESITO NEGATIVO DELLA SVOLTA NEOLIBERISTA.............................................................................55
h. IL DECLINO E LA GUERRA DELLE FALKLAND-MALVINAS.................................................................56
i. LA CONTROVERSA TRANSIZIONE ARGENTINA.....................................................................................58
3. STORIA COMPARATA DELLE ESPERIENZE AUTORITARIE E DELLE TRANSIZIONI ALLA
DEMOCRAZIA IN ARGENTINA E BRASILE.........................................................................................63
a. PREMESSE ALL’ANALISI COMPARATIVA.................................................................................................63
b. IL CONTESTO INTERNAZIONALE E L’ETÀ DELLA RIVOLUZIONE.....................................................65
c. DUE REGIMI BUROCRATICO-AUTORITARI, DUE TRADIZIONI POLITICHE ..................................69
d. DAL MIRACOLO ECONOMICO ALLA CRISI DEL DEBITO.....................................................................71
e. LA REPRESSIONE SUL PIANO COMPARATIVO......................................................................................77
f. I PROCESSI DI TRANSIZIONE ALLA DEMOCRAZIA: LE DIFFERENTI FASI INIZIALI….................81
g. …E LE DIFFERENTI EVOLUZIONI..............................................................................................................87
h. DALLO SCONTRO ALL’INCONTRO: NUOVE PROSPETTIVE REGIONALI.........................................93
i. “IL BRASILE DEL FUTURO” E “L’ARGENTINA DEL PASSATO”.............................................................97
CONCLUSIONI............................................................................................................................................99
BIBLIOGRAFIA.......................................................................................................................................101
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ABSTRACT
Argentina and Brazil, throughout the 60’s and the 80’s were both governed by milit-
ary regimes inspired by the same politic typology: the bureaucratic authoritarian re-
gime. This expression, originally introduced by Guillermo O’Donnell, refers to au-
thoritarian political systems controlled by military and civil elites who have strong re-
lations with foreign capitals. The following thesis aims at analysing and comparing
the history of the bureaucratic authoritarian regimes who found themselves governing
Argentina and Brazil during the Cold War. In the first two chapters the country’s af-
fairs are studied one by one: in Brazil the military regime arose to power in 1964 and
ruled the country until 1985. It was an authoritarian regime, but not as bloody and vi-
olent if compared to other South American ones such as the Argentinian. In analysing
the Brazilian military regime what clearly stands out is a particular focus on legality,
institutions and economic performance. The regime went through various phases: the
first was overall quite moderate, the second was to be certainly more repressive while
the third was a period of distension. In this research we analyse the dynamics and
events that brought to the evolution of such historical phases/moments/periods by
cross analysing national history and the specific international context in which the
events it took place.
The second chapter discusses the happenings of the authoritarian experiences that Ar-
gentina went through during the given period. Two distinct military regimes, one
from 1966 to 1973 and the other from 1976 to 1983, divided by the peronist inter-
regnum. The choice of analysing both the authoritarian experiences is due to the fact
they belong to the same historical process, that is the one which saw the proliferation
of authoritarian bureaucratic regimes across Latin America during the Cold War. Dur-
ing this period in Argentina a strong political polarization that almost brought to
country to civil war was to be observed. The military carried out an intense repression
and high level of violence on the Argentinian population, especially during the
second period, named Proceso de Reorganización Nacional where they committed a
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real genocide. Military power came to an end after a deep internal (internal divisions
between opposite factions) and external (the Falkland-Malvinas defeat) political crisis
along with the neoliberal economic choices made during the debt crisis context that
involved the hole Latin-American area.
In addition to the military regimes’ history this thesis carefully analyses the transition
towards democracy. In Brazil's case, thanks to the legitimacy that the military govern-
ment in power had preserved - even though decreasingly over the last few years - and
due to the political ability of the moderate part of the military faction, transition went
on as a slow and gradual process, controlled from above. The Argentinian transition
instead began after the Falkland-Malvinas defeat and the military power had poor
control over the countries' process of democratization.
In the third chapter a comparison is made between the history of the military regimes
that governed in Brazil and Argentina and their respective transition to democracy.
The particular interest initiated by the comparison of the two countries' history comes
from the fact that, apart from being the most populated and influent of Latin America
and having many historical and cultural similarities, they then both went through the
same military regime (BA) during the same historical moment. Not to mention that
the Cold War was a period of important political and economic changes not only in
Latin America but all over the world. The outcome of the various conflicts, internal
and external to the area here analysed, strongly influenced the following decades. The
comprehension of such historical processes has at times required a multidisciplinary
approach (with sociological and anthropological references) as well as a broadening
of the research time boundaries.
The researches' results prove how, a part from the apparent "historical similarities"
between the countries, the differences that distinguish the evolution of their political
history are far more relevant. Briefly, among the most significant "historical similarit-
ies" to be considered we find colonial heritage, populist experience and the endemic
militarism previous to the bureaucratic authoritarian experience; the chronological
analogy in experiencing the bureaucratic authoritarian regimes and consequent trans-
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ition to democracy; political and economic influence played by the United States;
today's democratic experience, the longest in both countries' history. The historical
comparison, however, brings to evidence how, although the two regimes were born in
relation to a wider phenomenon of authoritarian reflux strictly related to Cold War
geo-political dynamics, the political structures that developed were to be very differ-
ent.
As said, both military regimes are identified ad BA, but via a comparative analysis
profound differences are to be detected: the most evident is the obsessive attention to
legality and institutions often found in the Brazilian regime which we don't see in the
Argentinian one. This difference is in some way linked to the difference in how viol-
ence was used by the regimes with the opposition and with the population in general.
If the Brazilian one is to be considered as an example of mild dictatorship the Argen-
tinian one is known as one of the bloodiest in Latin America. The number of dead and
tortured in Brazil was much lower compared to their Argentinian neighbours but such
difference is not only to be found in the different conception of legality, but also in
the Argentinian higher political polarisation which encouraged opposition activity, of-
ten in a terroristic manner, much more difficult to counteract. The presence of an Ar-
gentinian opposition in broad layers of society along with the relative weakness of the
Brazilian one is understandable only if the cultural and political heritage of the two
countries are considered. The Argentinian one was an example of a deeply politicized
society where richness distribution was as in more advanced countries while the
Brazilian social asset was resolutely more hierarchic.
However it was not only the political history of the two countries to differ but also
the economic one. During the decades in which the military governed in Argentina
and Brazil some momentous changes took place in the global economic system. The
two countries' governments reacted in different ways to these changes: Argentina pro-
moted strong neoliberal economic policies while Brazil, still giving the impression of
partially pursuing neoliberal behaviours that followed the North American diktat, op-
ted to maintain a higher state control over economy.
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In general, it's essential to point out how the Brazilian regime experienced more con-
tinuity and stability than the Argentinian one. The reasons for such difference are to
be, once again, sought in the different cultural and political heritages and in the dif-
ferent type of conflict and ways of governing that differentiated the two countries.
The Brazilian military government itself was not to be said completely free from in-
ternal tension and stress, but never to the degree to actually undermine the country's
stability. In the crucial moments that marked the Brazilian regime's last years the
most moderate of the military faction managed to set up and control the process of
transition to democracy. In the Argentinian case the military started - and then lost - a
war with the initial aim of restoring the power which was weakening, but the effect
was the opposite that is of losing control of the situation (and the consequent trans-
ition) along with the little legitimacy they still detained. The problem of post-author-
itarian justice inevitably ran into different types of evolution: the Brazilian military
responsible of the crimes committed still remain unpunished while many Argentinian
officials, despite years of resistance and threats of coup, have been sentenced. The is-
sue remains delicate and its recent developments along with the important efforts
made by governments and ONG's in recovering historical memory are proof of it.
In the final part of the thesis the relationship between the two countries is analysed;
two separate periods were identified. A first period from the birth f the military re-
gimes in the late 70's was characterized by a detached relationship - if not of open
clash - between the two countries. Starting from the last years in which the military
governed a change of register in the direction of economic cooperation and, in today's
situation, political integration.
Brazil and Argentina are now living the longest democratic experience of their history
and there is no particular reason to fear any authoritarian back-flow. The happenings -
national or international - that took place during the years the military government,
strongly influenced the following decades, for the better (the industrial structure in-
herited by democratic Brazil) and the worse (the unresolved post-authoritarian
justice problems in Brazil or the economic problems that haunt Argentina). For sure
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the two countries from many points of view present themselves as international play-
ers with a different economic and political role - much stronger in the case of Brazil
that seems to aspire and practise a regional leadership -, but considering the reformist
impulses given by the so called "Pink Tide" and the regional integration projects,
we're allowed to expect a positive economic evolution and democratic and balanced
political future.
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INTRODUZIONE
Negli anni ’90, in seguito alla caduta di molti regimi autoritari in ogni angolo del
pianeta, venne prodotta una vasta letteratura specifica che analizzava questi regimi e,
soprattutto, i processi di transizione alla democrazia. Quest’ultimo tema si rivelò -e
rimane tutt’oggi- estremamente complesso. Molti testi prodotti negli anni
immediatamente successivi alla caduta dei regimi risentivano però in parte della
grande carica emotiva ed ideologica che portavano con sé i processi di
democratizzazione. L’approccio è stato spesso quello di provare a creare una
modellistica più o meno universale per un’efficace esportazione della democrazia
laddove precedentemente vigeva un regime autoritario. Ma queste modellistiche
hanno in alcuni casi -come in Iraq, Afganistan e Kosovo- lasciato molti problemi
irrisolti e la questione si è riproposta con forza in tempi recenti -in particolare con la
Primavera Araba- portando ad un’evoluzione nell’approccio al problema, spesso in
senso più “relativista”.
La presente tesi mira a riconsiderare i regimi autoritari nati negli anni ’60 in Brasile
ed Argentina e le rispettive transizioni alla democrazia, considerando che al momento
della stesura sono passati circa trent’anni dalla caduta dei regimi. È questo un lasso di
tempo sufficiente per valutare in modo lucido e, ci si augura, oggettivo, l’operato
delle dittature e gli esiti dei processi di transizione alla democrazia.
Negli anni immediatamente successivi alla svolta democratica vennero prodotti un
buon numero di studi sui regimi militari e sulle transizioni. La presente tesi utilizza la
documentazione prodotta in quegli anni, integrando la ricerca sia con alcuni isolati
-ma ottimi- studi sviluppati negli ultimi anni, sia con materiale divenuto pubblico
solo recentemente, come i numerosi documenti segreti del regime militare argentino.
Va aggiunto inoltre che i processi di transizione, nel complesso, possono durare molto
a lungo e alcuni avvenimenti recenti, come i provvedimenti della presidente
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brasiliana Dilma Rouseff in materia di recupero della memoria storica, possono
considerarsi come parte integrante dei processi stessi.
Per quanto riguarda la scelta di comparare la storia delle dittature in Brasile ed
Argentina, una serie di fattori rendono in questo caso l’analisi particolarmente
interessante: i due paesi, accomunati da una medesima contingenza storica,
sperimentano dei modelli autoritari simili ma anche profondamente differenti.
L’obbiettivo di questa ricerca è analizzare le analogie e le differenze che hanno
segnato la storia dei due paesi durante i regimi militari e negli anni delle transizioni
alla democrazia. Una costante che emerge lungo tutta la tesi risulterà evidente al
lettore: la storia dei due paesi a partire dalla metà degli anni ’60 si giocò da un lato
sul fronte nazionale e dall’altro su quello internazionale. Fu il rapporto fra le scelte
dei leader militari del tempo e il contesto internazionale -particolarmente complesso e
mutevole negli anni ’70 ed ’80- in cui esse venivano prese, che determinò in gran
parte (senza però escludere l’importanza delle realtà sociopolitiche interne ai due
stati) il corso degli eventi. Questa premessa potrebbe apparire scontata in quanto,
particolarmente a partire dal XX secolo, la storia dei singoli stati nazionali e quella
internazionale sono legate in modo indissolubile. Ma la comparazione della storia
brasiliana ed argentina del periodo in questione è particolarmente utile poiché
permette di comprendere i differenti esiti politici ed economici che sono il risultato di
processi che hanno avuto luogo in due paesi che per molti versi si trovavano in balia
delle medesime condizioni internazionali. Naturalmente queste “medesime
condizioni internazionali” riguardavano alcune circostanze comuni come quelle della
Guerra Fredda o della crisi del debito ma, beninteso, le relazioni internazionali dei
due paesi differivano su vari aspetti, come nel rapporto con la comunità
internazionale o nel rapporto con gli Stati Uniti. Quest’ultimi sono la “terza unità
d’indagine”, il protagonista dal quale dipendevano le scelte dei primi due. Il ruolo
statunitense è un fattore fondamentale per la comprensione degli eventi: lungo la tesi
traspare inevitabilmente un giudizio negativo su quello che è stato il ruolo storico
della superpotenza nelle vicende di questi anni, spesso complice, alle volte artefice,
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