Table Of ContentPREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY
OF THE VALLEY OF OAXACA
Kent V. Flannery, General Editor
Volume I The Use of Land and Water Resources in the Past and Present Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Anne
V. T. Kirkby. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.5. 1973.
Volume 2 Sociopolitical Aspects of Canal Irrigation in the Valley of Oaxaca, by Susan H. Lees. Memoirs of
the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.6. 1973.
Volume 3 Formative Mesoamerican Exchange Networks with Special Reference to the Valley of Oaxaca, by
Jane W. Pires-Ferreira. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.7.
1975.
Volume 4 Fabrica San Jose and Middle Formative Society in the Valley of Oaxaca, by Robert D. Drennan.
Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.8. 1975.
Volume 5 Part 1. The Vegetational History of the Oaxaca Valley, by C. Earle Smith, Jr.
Part 2. Zapotec Plant Knowledge: Classification, Uses and Communication about Plants in Mit/a,
Oaxaca, Mexico, by Ellen Messer.
Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 10. 1978.
Volume 6 Excavations at Santo Domingo Tomaltepec: Evolution of a Formative Community in the Valley of
Oaxaca, Mexico, by Michael E. Whalen. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of
Michigan, No. 12. 1981.
Volume 7 Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part 1: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern
Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Richard E. Blanton, Stephen Kowalewski, Gary Fein
man, and Jill Appel. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 15.
1982.
Volume 8 Chipped Stone Tools in Formative Oaxaca, Mexico: Their Procurement, Production and Use, by
William 1. Parry. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 20. 1987.
Volume 9 Agricultural Intensification and Prehistoric Health in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Denise C.
Hodges. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 22. 1989.
Related Volumes
Flannery, Kent V.
1986 Guila Naquitz: Archaic Foraging and Early Agriculture in Oaxaca, Mexico, New York: Academic
Press.
Kowalewski, Stephen A., Gary M. Feinman, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton, and Linda M. Nicholas
1989 Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part ff: Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan,
the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan,
No. 23 (2 volumes).
MEMOIRS OF THE MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
NUMBER 22
PREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY
OF THE VALLEY OF OAXACA
Kent V. Flannery, General Editor
Volume 9
AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION
AND PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE
VALLEY OF OAXACA, MEXICO
by Denise C. Hodges
ANN ARBOR
1989
© 1989 by The Regents of The Univeristy of
Michigan The Museum of Anthropology
All rights reserved
Printed in the
United States of America
ISBN 978-0-915703-16-6 (paper)
ISBN 978-1-951538-04-0 (ebook)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hodges, Denise C.
Agricultural intensification and prehistoric health in the Valley of
Oaxaca, Mexico/by Denise C. Hodges.
p.cm.-(Prehistory and human ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca; v.
9)(Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan;
no. 22)
Bibliography: p.
ISBN 0-915703-16-5
I.Indians of Mexico-Oaxaca Valley-Agriculture-Health aspects.
2.Indians of Mexico-Oaxaca Valley-Health and hygiene. 3. Indians
of Mexico-Oaxaca Valley-Antiquities. 4. Oaxaca Valley (Mexico)
Antiquities. 5. Mexico-Antiquities. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series:
Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan; no.
22.
GN2.M52 no. 22
[F1219. 1.0ll]
306 s-dcl9
[614.4'272'74] 88-38162
CIP
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. ix
Introduction to Volume 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xl
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS .............................................. . 1
The Research Problem ........................................................................................ . 1
The Research Method ........................................................................................ . 2
CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGES IN THE SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS ................ . 5
The Rise of Sedentism ........................................................................................ . 5
The Rise of Agriculture ....................................................................................... . 7
Consequences of the Rise of Agriculture and Sedentism ............................................................ . 8
Sedentism and Health ........................................................................................ . 9
Subsistence and Health ....................................................................................... . 10
CHAPTER 3. STUDIES OF HEALTH AND AGRICULTURE IN PREHISTORIC POPULATIONS ................ . 13
The Concept of Health ........................................................................................ . 13
Paleopathology Studies of Subsistence Change .................................................................... . 15
Methodological Issues ........................................................................................ . 15
Review of Paleopathology Studies ............................................................................... . 16
Summary ................................................................................................... . 19
CHAPTER 4. ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF OAXACA ................................................................. . 21
Description of the Valley of Oaxaca ............................................................................. . 21
The Chronology of the Prehispanic Valley of Oaxaca ............................................................... . 21
Archaeological Sites ......................................................................................... . 25
San Sebastian Abasolo ...................................................................................... . 25
Barrio del Rosario Huitzo ................................................................................... . 25
Caballito Blanco ........................................................................................... . 25
Dainzu .................................................................................................. . 26
F<ibrica San Jose .......................................................................................... . 26
Lambityeco (Yegiiih) ....................................................................................... . 26
Brawbehl ................................................................................................ . 26
Mitla Fortress ............................................................................................. . 26
San Jose Mogote .......................................................................................... . 26
Monte Alban ............................................................................................. . 26
Tierras Largas ............................................................................................ . 26
Santo Domingo Tomaltepec .................................................................................. . 27
Yagul .................................................................................................... . 27
Zaachila ................................................................................................. . 27
Summary ................................................................................................ . 27
The Agricultural Potential of the Valley of Oaxaca ................................................................. . 27
Temporal Trends in Subsistence ................................................................................ . 28
Temporal Trends in Settlement Patterns and Population Size ......................................................... . 29
Social and Political Organization in the Valley of Oaxaca ........................................................... . 31
Social Organization ........................................................................................ . 31
Trade Networks and External Contact .......................................................................... . 31
CHAPTER 5. MATERIALS AND METHODS: HYPOTHESES, SKELETAL HEALTH MARKERS,
THE SAMPLE AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES ................................................................ . 33
Hypothesis I ................................................................................................ . 33
Hypothesis II ............................................................................................... . 33
Hypothesis III ............................................................................................... . 34
Hypothesis IV .............................................................................................. . 34
Skeletal Stress Markers ..................................................................................... . 34
Nonspecific Stress Markers .................................................................................... . 35
Enamel Hypoplasia ........................................................................................ . 35
v
Periapical Abscesses ........................................................................................ 36
Dental Calculus ................................................................................ ........... 36
Periodontal Disease ......................................................................................... 36
Hypercementosis ........................................................................................... 37
Dental Caries .............................................................................................. 37
Dental Attrition ............................................................................................ 38
Specific Stress Markers ........................................................................................ 38
Porotic Hyperostosis ........................................................................................ 38
Periosteal Reactions ......................................................................................... 39
Degenerative Joint Disease ................................................................................... 40
Additional Health Markers ................................................................................... 40
The Oaxaca Skeletal Samples ................................................................................... 40
Analytical Tests .............................................................................................. 41
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS ............................................................ . 45
Enamel Hypoplasia .......................................................................................... . 46
Periapical Abscesses ......................................................................................... . 49
Dental Calculus ............................................................................................. . 50
Periodontal Disease .......................................................................................... . 50
Hypercementosis ............................................................................................. . 51
Summary of General Health Markers ..................................................................... . 51
Statistical Power Analysis ..................................................................................... . 52
Analyses with Classic and Postclassic Groups Pooled ............................................................... . 53
CHAPTER 7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................. . 63
Comparison of Skeletal Stress Marker Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
Periosteal Reactions ........................................................................................... 63
Porotic Hyperostosis ......................................................................................... . 63
Enamel Hypoplasia .......................................................................................... . 64
Dental Caries ............................................................................................... . 64
Interpretation of the Oaxaca Stress Marker Frequencies ............................................................. . 65
Agriculture and Health ....................................................................................... . 69
Conclusions ................................................................................................ . 70
References Cited 73
APPENDICES. INTRODUCTION .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
Appendix 1: Burial List ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
Appendix 2: Metrics ............................................................................................ 93
Appendix 3: Dental Pathology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix 4: Skeletal Pathology .................................................................................... 117
VI
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Summary of frequency differences in paleopathology studies ..................................................................... 19
4.1 Chronology of the prehistoric Valley of Oaxaca ................................................................................ 24
5.1 Age and sex distribution of the Valley of Oaxaca skeletal samples ................................................................. 41
6.1 Frequency of periosteal reactions among males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
6.2 Frequency of periosteal reactions among females ............................................................................... 54
6.3 Frequency of periosteal reactions among adults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
6.4 Frequency of periosteal reactions among subadults less than 6 years old ............................................................ 54
6.5 Frequency of periosteal reactions among subadults 6 to 17 years old ............................................................... 55
6.6 Frequency of periosteal reactions among subadults less than 17 years old ........................................................... 55
6.7 Frequency of individuals with enamel hypoplasia ............................................................................... 55
6.8 Frequency of individuals with enamel hypoplasia on mandibular canines ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.9 Frequency of individuals with enamel hypoplasia on maxillary central incisors ....................................................... 55
6.10 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among males ............................................................ 55
6.11 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among females .......................................................... 56
6.12 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among adults ............................................................ 56
6.13 Chronological distributions of matched enamel hypoplasia episodes among males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
6.14 Chronological distributions of matched enamel hypoplasia episodes among females ................................................... 56
6.15 Chronological distributions of matched enamel hypoplasia episodes among adults .................................................... 57
6.16 Median test of matched and unmatched enamel hypoplasia chronologies ............................................................ 57
6.17 Frequency of individuals with carious lesions .................................................................................. 57
6.18 Frequency of permanent teeth with carious lesions .............................................................................. 57
6.19 Distribution of caries by severity score ....................................................................................... 57
6.20 Distribution of caries by location ............................................................................................ 57
6.21 Frequency of teeth with periapical abscesses ................................................................................... 58
6.22 Distribution of abscesses by severity score ........................... ........................................................ 58
6.23 Frequency of teeth with calculus ............................................................................................ 58
6.24 Distribution of calculus severity scores ....................................................................................... 58
6.25 Frequency of teeth with periodontal disease ................................................................................... 58
6.26 Distribution of periodontal disease severity scores .............................................................................. 59
6.27 Frequency of teeth with hypercementosis ...................................................................................... 59
6.28 Frequency of individuals with cribra orbitalia .................................................................................. 59
6.29 Frequency of individuals with porotic hyperostosis .............................................................................. 59
6.30 Kruskal-Wallis test of rate of dental wear ..................................................................................... 59
6.31 Frequency of degenerative lesions in the body and vertebral joints ................................................................. 60
6.32 Power analysis of statistical tests ............................................................................................ 60
6.33 Frequency of individuals with periosteal reactions-2-group comparison ............................................................ 61
6.34 Frequencies of individuals with cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis-2-group comparison .......................................... 61
6.35 Frequency of individuals with enamel hypoplasia on mandibular canines and maxillary central incisors-2-group comparison ................ 61
6.36 Frequency of dental caries-2-group comparison ............................................................................... 61
6.37 Frequency of teeth with periapical abscesses, periodontal disease, and hypercementosis-2-group comparison ............................. 62
6.38 Frequency of teeth with calculus-2-group comparison ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
7.1 Frequency of stress markers in selected paleopathology studies .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1 Goodman's model of health .................................................................................................. 14
4.1 Location of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico ............................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
4.2 Location of archaeological sites in the Valley of Oaxaca .......................................................................... 23
6.1 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
6.2 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among females ........................................................... 48
6.3 Chronological distributions of enamel hypoplasia episodes among adults ............................................................. 49
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was aided by research grants from Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, and the State University of New
York at Albany Benevolent Association. Their financial support of this project is gratefully acknowledged.
Permission to examine the skeletal collections analyzed in this study was kindly given by the Instituto Nacional de
Antropologfa e Historia, Joaquin Garcfa-Barcena, Director de Monumentos Prehispanicos. The following individuals kindly
provided facilities for examining skeletal collections in their institutions: Marfa de la Luz Topete Vargas, Directora del Centro
Regional de Oaxaca; Marfa Elena Salas Cuesta, Jefe del Departamento de Antropologfa Ffsica del Museo Nacional de
Antropologfa; Javier Urcid, Museo Frissell de Arte Zapoteca; and John Chance, Departamento de Antropologia, Universidad de
los Americas.
This study is a revised version of my doctoral dissertation. Further cleaning of the data since the dissertation was completed has
resulted in minor changes of some values in the data tables. These revisions have been incorporated in this manuscript; however,
they have not affected the results or interpretations. I once again wish to thank the members of my doctoral committee: Richard
Wilkinson, Lawrence Schell, Alan Rogers, and Richard Leventhal for their guidance, support, and critical comments during this
project. I am also indebted to the many archaeologists whose research in the Valley of Oaxaca over the past decades has provided
the contextual and skeletal data used in this study. I especially want to thank Kent Flannery, Robert Drennan, Michael Whalen,
Marcus Winter, Javier Urcid, and John Paddock, who have provided me with information on burials and archaeological sites in
Oaxaca.
Kent Flannery skillfully edited the manuscript and I wish to thank him along with Sally Horvath for her editorial assistance. I
was aided by many friends, colleagues and my family throughout the course of this project and I would like to extend my sincere
thanks to all of them.
ix
