White Appropriations of Black Masculinities in the Civil

307 Pages·2014·1.7 MB·English

by  Katharine Bausch

He
 Thinks
 He’s
 Down:
 White
 Appropriations
 of
 Black
 Masculinities

in
 the
 Civil
 Rights
 Era,
 1945-­‐1979

Katharine
 Lizabeth
 Bausch

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY
YORK UNIVERSITY
TORONTO, ONTARIO

November, 2014

© Katharine Lizabeth Bausch, 2014
Abstract

“He
 Thinks
 He’s
 Down”
 examines
 the
 ways
 in
 which
 a
 significant
 and
 influential

collection
 of
 white
 artists
 and
 activists
 in
 the
 1940s,
 1950s,
 1960s,
 and
 1970s,

seeking
 an
 alternative
 to
 hegemonic
 white
 middle-­‐class
 masculinity,
 appropriated

imaginary
 black
 masculinities
 into
 their
 lives
 and
 work.
 The
 dissertation

demonstrates
 that
 during
 the
 civil
 rights
 era
 images
 of
 black
 men
 circulated
 widely

in
 U.S.
 popular
 culture,
 in
 part
 because
 of
 the
 acceleration
 of
 the
 black
 freedom

struggle.
 Media
 depictions
 of
 black
 men
 engaging
 in
 struggles
 for
 civil
 rights,

integration,
 self-­‐determination,
 and
 the
 end
 of
 white
 supremacy
 highlighted
 their

rebelliousness,
 strength,
 freedom,
 and
 power.
 In
 this
 same
 moment,
 many
 white

middle-­‐class
 men
 felt
 anxious,
 disempowered,
 insecure,
 and
 disillusioned
 with

norms
 of
 middle-­‐class
 manhood,
 especially
 in
 the
 context
 of
 a
 growing
 white-­‐collar

economy,
 the
 nuclear
 arms
 race,
 suburbanization,
 and
 political
 corruption.
 These

emotions
 were
 expressed
 in
 various
 popular
 culture
 forums,
 including
 literature,

political
 movements,
 magazines
 and
 films.

  “He
 Thinks
 He’s
 Down”
 argues
 that
 one
 strategy
 adopted
 by
 white
 artists
 and

activists
 to
 reinvigorate
 white
 middle-­‐class
 masculinity
 was
 the
 appropriation
 of

imaginary
 characteristics
 of
 black
 masculinity
 circulating
 in
 media,
 including

rebelliousness,
 strength,
 freedom,
 and
 power.

 The
 four
 case
 studies
 examined

here—Beat
 writers,
 Students
 for
 a
 Democratic
 Society
 activists,
 Playboy
 fashion

editors,
 and
 Blaxploitation
 film
 directors—show
 that
 the
 artistic
 and
 political

appropriations
 over
 the
 course
 of
 the
 period
 changed
 as
 the
 images
 of
 black
 men
 in

the
 media
 varied,
 but
 that
 they
 nevertheless
 had
 similar
 consequences.
 Though

  ii
often
 celebrating
 the
 strength
 of
 black
 masculinity,
 they
 ultimately
 reduced
 black

manhood
 to
 a
 series
 of
 consumable
 images,
 perpetuated
 many
 racist
 stereotypes,

silenced
 the
 role
 of
 black
 women
 and
 black
 femininities,
 and
 reinforced
 the

structurally-­‐based
 privileges
 that
 were
 denied
 to
 black
 men
 to
 either
 accept
 or

reject
 hegemonic
 masculinity.

  ii
 i
This
 dissertation
 is
 dedicated
 to
 the
 people
 who
 continue
 to
 struggle
 to
 make

the
 dream
 of
 a
 just
 world
 a
 reality.

“No
 Freedom
 Until
 We’re
 Equal.”

  iv
Acknowledgements

In
 honor
 of
 a
 woman
 who
 brought
 magic
 into
 my
 life,
 these
 acknowledgements
 are

split
 seven
 ways.
 They
 are
 also
 very
 long-­‐winded,
 as
 is
 my
 way,
 so
 settle
 in.
 First,
 I

owe
 a
 tremendous
 debt
 to
 my
 supervisory
 team.
 My
 supervisor,
 Marc
 Stein,
 was
 my

constant
 guide
 through
 this
 challenging
 process.
 He
 helped
 me
 to
 grow
 as
 a
 scholar,

taught
 me
 about
 perseverance,
 and
 reminded
 me
 that
 my
 research
 and
 writing

deserve
 careful
 and
 thoughtful
 consideration.
 He
 and
 his
 partner
 Jorge
 also
 gave
 up

countless
 hours
 of
 their
 personal
 time,
 inviting
 me
 to
 sit
 at
 their
 kitchen
 table

learning
 to
 be
 a
 better
 writer,
 for
 which
 I
 am
 grateful.
 I
 also
 want
 to
 thank
 Molly

Ladd-­‐Taylor
 for
 her
 thoughtful
 critiques
 that
 always
 reminded
 me
 to
 consider
 the

counterarguments,
 her
 questions
 that
 forced
 me
 to
 contemplate
 the
 subtleties
 of
 my

subject
 matter,
 the
 many
 research
 and
 teaching
 opportunities
 she
 offered
 me,
 and

the
 cups
 of
 tea
 she
 poured
 for
 me
 with
 a
 spoonful
 of
 guidance
 and
 understanding.

Finally,
 I
 want
 to
 thank
 Michele
 Johnson
 for
 so
 thoughtfully
 considering
 my
 work

and
 asking
 the
 questions
 I
 was
 trying
 to
 avoid.
 Her
 willingness
 to
 make
 my
 project
 a

priority
 in
 a
 busy
 and
 difficult
 time
 in
 her
 life
 is
 a
 credit
 to
 her
 unyielding

professionalism
 and
 commitment.
 I
 would
 also
 like
 to
 thank
 the
 members
 of
 my

examining
 committee
 for
 taking
 the
 time
 to
 carefully
 consider
 my
 project.

  Second,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 thank
 the
 many
 archivists
 who
 helped
 me
 navigate

the
 dozens
 of
 boxes,
 hundreds
 of
 sheets
 of
 paper,
 and
 piles
 of
 notebooks
 that
 make

up
 the
 bulk
 of
 my
 primary
 research.
 The
 archivists
 at
 the
 Library
 of
 Congress,
 the

New
 York
 Public
 Library,
 the
 Harry
 Ransom
 Center,
 the
 Students
 for
 a
 Democratic

Society
 Archives,
 the
 Dartmouth
 Libraries,
 the
 Thomas
 Fisher
 Rare
 Book
 Library,

  v
the
 McMaster
 University
 Libraries,
 the
 Wisconsin
 Historical
 Society,
 the
 University

of
 Rochester
 Libraries,
 and
 the
 Voices
 of
 Feminism
 Oral
 History
 Project
 made
 my

research
 process
 a
 pleasant
 and
 exciting
 journey.

 Those
 who
 are
 trying
 to
 cut

funding
 to
 archives
 need
 only
 spend
 one
 long
 afternoon
 with
 an
 archivist
 who
 is

helping
 to
 decipher
 the
 notes
 that
 Jack
 Kerouac
 wrote
 on
 napkins
 to
 realize
 that

these
 cuts
 are
 foolish
 and
 short
 sighted.

  Third,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 thank
 all
 of
 the
 organizations
 that
 helped
 fund
 this

project.
 The
 Social
 Sciences
 and
 Humanities
 Research
 Council
 of
 Canada,
 the
 Ontario

Graduate
 Scholarship
 Program,
 the
 Faculty
 of
 Graduate
 Studies
 at
 York
 University,

the
 Robert
 Cuff
 Fellowship,
 and
 the
 York
 University
 Graduate
 History
 Program
 have

all
 provided
 generous
 support
 that
 took
 me
 from
 the
 U.S.
 Northeast
 to
 the
 U.S.

Southwest
 and
 many
 places
 in
 between.

  Fourth,
 I
 was
 blessed
 to
 spend
 the
 last
 seven
 years
 among
 my
 professors
 and

colleagues
 in
 the
 York
 University
 History
 Department.
 I’d
 like
 to
 thank
 Professors

Marlene
 Shore,
 Marc
 Egnal,
 Craig
 Heron,
 Bettina
 Bradbury,
 Anne
 Rubenstein,
 Boyd

Cothran,
 William
 Wicken,
 Kate
 McPherson,
 Carolyn
 Podruchny,
 and
 Jennifer

Stephen
 for
 teaching
 me
 in
 their
 classrooms,
 giving
 me
 advice
 in
 their
 offices,
 and

always
 offering
 their
 insights
 and
 support.
 I
 would
 also
 like
 to
 thank
 the

administrative
 staff
 who
 were
 helpful
 and
 tireless.
 Thank
 you
 Lisa
 Hoffman,
 Karen

Dancy,
 Patricia
 Di
 Benigno,
 Dharshi
 Sivitharshini,
 Daniela
 DiNunzio,
 and
 Anita

Szucsko.

  Thanks
 are
 also
 necessary
 to
 the
 dozens
 of
 colleagues
 I
 had
 throughout
 my

time
 in
 the
 program.
 They
 walked
 the
 strike
 line,
 had
 too
 many
 drinks,
 and
 attended

  v
 i
conferences
 with
 me,
 offered
 advice,
 read
 my
 work,
 and
 filled
 difficult
 times
 with

humor
 and
 understanding.
 In
 particular,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 thank
 the
 members
 of
 the

Gender
 Reading
 Group,
 the
 U.S./Gender/Sexualities
 Writing
 Group
 (Mark
 Abraham,

Ian
 McPhedran,
 Healy
 Thompson,
 Natalie
 Gravelle,
 Mathieu
 Brûlé,
 Merrick

Pilling,
 Liane
 Cheshire,
 and
 Nathan
 Wilson),
 the
 Memory
 Reading
 Group
 (Lee

Slinger,
 Dan
 Bullard,
 Jay
 Young,
 Nathan
 Wilson,
 and
 Colin
 McCullough)
 and
 (in
 no

particular
 order)
 Mark
 Brownlie,
 Erin
 Dolmage,
 Sara
 Howdle,
 Andrew
 Watson,

Ashlee
 Bligh,
 Jim
 Clifford,
 Val
 Deacon,
 Gil
 Fernandes,
 Brad
 Meredith,
 Samira
 Saramo,

Angela
 Rooke,
 Sara
 Muscat,
 Laura
 Godsoe,
 Brian
 Macdowall,
 Kris
 Radford,
 Ian

Milligan,
 Stacey
 Alexopoulos,
 Will
 Stos…and
 many
 more.

  Fifth,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 thank
 the
 many
 friends
 who
 helped
 me
 through
 this

process
 and
 never
 told
 me
 to
 get
 a
 real
 job:
 the
 Bilous-­‐Kanach-­‐Leventhal
 family,
 who

have
 been
 with
 me
 since
 the
 Windy
 City
 days,
 always
 gave
 me
 a
 home
 away
 from

home,
 clipped
 articles
 from
 the
 newspaper,
 and
 read
 my
 many
 drafts;
 Raph
 and

Diane
 for
 the
 hours
 of
 library
 “work”
 sessions,
 delightful
 book
 clubs,
 and
 bad

movies;
 Isidora
 and
 Aleks
 for
 showing
 me
 a
 piece
 of
 heaven
 on
 earth,
 feeding
 me

treats,
 and
 giving
 me
 solid
 advice;
 Sasha
 for
 always
 being
 just
 a
 phone
 call
 away;

Tara
 for
 sticking
 with
 me
 all
 of
 these
 years;
 Funké
 and
 Francesca
 for
 always

understanding
 me
 and
 making
 me
 laugh;
 Art
 for
 trusting
 me
 to
 be
 his
 colleague;

Kate,
 Dermont,
 Malcolm,
 Isil,
 and
 Rita
 for
 constant
 support;
 Jenn
 for
 running
 next
 to

me;
 the
 ladies
 in
 both
 of
 my
 book
 clubs
 for
 letting
 me
 be
 a
 book
 nerd;
 Crystal
 and

Michael
 for
 feeding
 my
 love
 of
 pop
 culture;
 Shai
 for
 the
 laughter;
 Susan
 and
 Sofi
 for

putting
 up
 with
 my
 endless
 typing
 and
 piles
 of
 books
 in
 the
 apartment;
 and

  vi
 i
Madeleine
 and
 Dag
 for
 making
 the
 beautiful
 pictures
 and
 giving
 me
 defence
 against

the
 dark
 arts
 lessons.

  Sixth,
 this
 project
 would
 not
 exist
 were
 it
 not
 for
 the
 love,
 support,
 and

laughter
 that
 my
 family
 has
 provided
 me
 over
 the
 years.
 All
 of
 the
 mistakes
 found

within
 are
 mine,
 but
 all
 of
 the
 successes
 belong
 to
 them.
 So
 to
 Michael,
 Susan,

Shawn,
 Kelly,
 Mark,
 Lucas,
 Jacob,
 Clare,
 Kerry,
 Justin,
 Elian,
 Jude,
 Ada,
 Donna,
 and

Barry,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 say
 thank
 you
 for
 encouraging
 me
 to
 take
 huge
 leaps,

applauding
 the
 loudest
 when
 I
 succeed
 and
 saving
 my
 life
 when
 I
 don’t.

 If
 you
 read

between
 the
 lines
 of
 this
 dissertation
 you
 will
 find
 them
 all
 there.

  Finally,
 I
 would
 like
 to
 express
 my
 deep
 gratitude
 for
 the
 men
 and
 women

who
 are
 the
 subjects
 of
 this
 dissertation.
 I
 may
 not
 always
 agree
 with
 their
 choices

or
 like
 their
 art—in
 fact,
 sometimes
 I
 don’t
 like
 it
 at
 all—but
 these
 writers,
 activists,

editors,
 and
 filmmakers
 had
 the
 courage
 to
 express
 a
 point
 of
 view,
 make
 an

argument,
 and
 try
 to
 change
 the
 way
 we
 think
 with
 only
 words,
 images,
 and
 actions.

I
 am
 now
 all
 too
 familiar
 with
 just
 how
 hard
 a
 project
 that
 can
 be.

  vi
 ii
Table
 of
 Contents

Abstract

  ii

Dedication

  iv

Acknowledgements

  v

Table
 of
 Contents

  ix

Introduction:
 Can
 He
 Be
 Down?

  1

Chapter
 1:
 “Try
 to
 Keep
 the
 Rebel
 Artist
 in
 You
 Alive”:
 Literary

Constructions
 and
 Appropriations
 of
 Black
 Masculinity
 by
 Norman

Mailer
 and
 Jack
 Kerouac,
 1945-­‐1965

  34

Chapter
 2:
 “And
 They
 Are
 Outraged”:
 Black
 and
 White
 Student

Organizing,
 1960-­‐1965

  99

Chapter
 3:
 Hef’s
 Harlem
 Hip:
 The
 Soul
 Aesthetic
 in
 Playboy
 Magazine,

 154

1964-­‐1979

Chapter
 4:
 The
 New
 Badass:
 Blaxploitation
 Films
 in
 White
 America,

1971-­‐1979

  202

Conclusion:
 When
 Can
 He
 Be
 Down?

  266

Bibliography

  ix
Introduction:

Can
 He
 Be
 Down?

When
 champion
 American
 swimmer
 Ryan
 Lochte
 was
 photographed
 with

one
 of
 his
 gold
 medals
 during
 the
 2012
 Summer
 Olympic
 Games
 in
 London,
 he

smiled
 to
 show
 off
 his
 custom-­‐made
 red,
 white,
 and
 blue
 grill.
 The
 grill,
 a
 metallic

mouthpiece
 long
 associated
 with
 African
 American
 rappers,
 sparked
 a
 conversation

among
 cultural
 commentators
 that
 focused
 less
 on
 whether
 the
 fashion
 accessory
 is

aesthetically
 pleasing
 in
 general
 and
 more
 on
 whether
 it
 was
 appropriate
 for
 a

young
 white
 swimmer
 to
 sport
 the
 mouthpiece.
 In
 Eric
 Wilson’s
 New
 York
 Times

article,
 for
 instance,
 fashion
 designer
 Robert
 Tateossian
 bemoaned
 Lochte’s
 grill

because
 it
 was
 “so
 nonharmonious
 with
 his
 image
 and
 with
 the
 sport
 that
 he

represents.”
 Tateossian
 believed
 that
 the
 grill
 had
 no
 place
 around
 the
 pool
 because

“swimming
 is
 such
 an
 elegant
 sport”;
 it’s
 “all
 about
 softness.”1
 Implicit
 in

Tateossian’s
 statement
 is
 a
 judgment
 about
 those
 who
 are
 associated
 with
 the
 grill

in
 the
 mainstream
 U.S.
 imagination:
 African
 American
 men.
 If
 swimming
 precludes

grills
 because
 it
 is
 elegant
 and
 soft,
 then
 those
 who
 usually
 wear
 the
 mouthpiece
 are

inelegant
 and
 hard.
 Tateossian
 seemed
 to
 object
 to
 the
 meaning
 of
 Lochte's

appropriation
 of
 this
 symbol
 in
 a
 sport
 dominated
 by
 white
 men
 and
 women.

The
 media
 attention
 that
 Lochte’s
 grill
 garnered
 was
 partially
 a
 result
 of
 the

swimmer’s
 claim
 that
 he
 had
 been
 asked
 by
 U.S.
 Olympic
 officials
 not
 to
 wear
 it
 on

1
 Eric
 Wilson,
 “That
 Flashing
 Smile,”
 NYT,
 August
 1,
 2012.
 For
 other
 commentary
 on

Ryan
 Lochte’s
 grill,
 see
 Nicole
 Auerbach
 and
 Kevin
 Johnson,
 “Ryan
 Lochte’s
 Post

Race
 Grill
 Shines
 with
 Stars
 and
 Stripes,”
 USA
 Today,
 July
 29,
 2012;
 Jennifer
 LaRue

Huget,
 “What’s
 on
 Ryan
 Lochte’s
 Teeth?”
 Washington
 Post,
 July
 30,
 2012;
 Cavan

Sieczkowski,
 “Ryan
 Lochte
 Grill:
 London
 Olympics
 Swimmer
 Shows
 Off
 Red,
 White,

and
 Blue
 Teeth,”
 Huffington
 Post,
 July
 30,
 2012.

  1