tuscaloosa, alabama

124 Pages·2013·2.91 MB·English

ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACTS OF DRINKING WATER INFRASTRUCTURE ON WATER
QUALITY IN ALABAMA’S BLACK BELT

by
RICHARD WARREN FOREHAND
PAULINE JOHNSON, COMMITTEE CHAIR
JOE BROWN
MARK ELLIOTT

A THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in the Department of
Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering in the Graduate School of
The University of Alabama

TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA

2013
Copyright Richard Warren Forehand 2013
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ABSTRACT
Research has suggested that residents of Alabama’s Black Belt are at elevated risk of
waterborne disease due to a problem with failing septic tanks in the area. At the same time, cities
and towns across the nation are realizing the dire need for replacing and rehabilitating America’s
declining water infrastructure to protect public health. An EPA-STAR project is being
conducted in three Black Belt counties to further assess the situation and help local water utilities
combat the increased risk of contamination. Water loss, low pressure, low chlorine, high
residence time, and presence of total coliforms were used as indicators to assess which service
areas of one Black Belt system were most likely vulnerable to contamination. Collected data
from 195 households within the system and simulated data from an EPANET model of the
system were used for the analysis. The results identified the regions with the highest prevalence
of these indicators and suggested further system level sampling to evaluate if the problem is
more associated with system water mains or households.

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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my friends, my family, and my Savior through whom I find
purpose.

iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ADEM Alabama Department of Environmental Management
ADPH Alabama Department of Public Health
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
AWWA American Water Works Association
Chlorine initial concentration

CDC Center for Disease Control
CWSRF Clean Water State Revolving Fund
DBP Disinfection by-product
DWINS Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey
DWMOR Drinking Water Monthly Operating Report
DWSRF Drinking Water State Revolving Fund
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
Gal Gallon
GPM Gallons per Minute
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h Hour
HAA5 Haloacetic acid
HCGI Highly Credible Gastrointestinal Illness
IWA International Water Association
Chlorine bulk reaction coefficient

Chlorine wall reaction coefficient

L Liters
MCL Maximum Contaminant Level
mg Milligrams
MGD Million Gallons per Day
MOR Monthly Operating Report
NAS National Academy of Sciences
NPDWR National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
NRC National Research Council
NSF National Science Foundation
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
psi Pounds per square inch
v
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
STAR Science to Achieve Results
TCR Total Coliform Rule
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TTHM Trihalomethane
WHO World Health Organization

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am forever indebted to the many colleagues, friends, and faculty who made this project
possible, and I am very pleased to have this opportunity to thank those people. Words can hardly
begin to express how grateful I am to have been guided through the field of research by my
advisor, committee chair, and friend, Dr. Pauline Johnson. Her patience, passion, and perception
comforted me when I did not know where to go with my research. I would also like to thank my
committee members, Dr. Joe Brown, Dr. Mark Elliott, and Dr. Christine Stauber, for their
exemplary leadership, priceless input, and confident support throughout this project. I would like
to also thank Dr. Julie Olson for helping me grasp basic concepts of microbiology and providing
brilliant insight to my work. Many thanks are due to the diverse team of student researchers at
the University of Alabama, but I would especially like to thank J.J. Wedgworth for her
friendship, leadership, and dedication to this team and project.
I am indebted to managers and operators of the utilities in the study area for their insight
and help with my hydraulic model. I would also like to thank the operators of the utilities in our
study area for helping me learn about the drinking water industry. I thank all of the people in
Hale, Sumter, and Wilcox counties who participated in our research study.
To my girlfriend and best friend, Alison Owen, thank you for sharing your life with mine
and providing the best memories I have ever known. To my big sister, Rachel Forehand, thank
you for traversing this life a little before me and exemplifying the heart of Jesus to me and
countless others. To my parents, Charles and Brenda Forehand, thank you for pouring out your
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lives into raising me and providing the basis for any good, valuable knowledge that I have
learned in this life. To my grandparents, while most of you have gone on before me, the hours
spent with you live within my heart and show me the meaning of unconditional love. I could not
have done this without any of you.
This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency.

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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS .......................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xvi
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Context .................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Purpose .................................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 5
2. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Water Infrastructure in the United States .............................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Historical Development ................................................................................................. 7
2.1.2 Challenges to Small, Rural Systems ............................................................................ 10
2.1.3 SDWA Violations ........................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Alabama’s Black Belt ......................................................................................................... 14
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