Table Of ContentI
• •
11
Terrestrial Fluids,
Earthquakes and
Volcanoes: The Hiroshi
Wakita Volume III
Edited by
Nemesio M. Pérez
Sergio Gurrieri
Chi-Yu King
Yuri Taran
Birkhäuser
Basel · Boston · Berlin
Reprint from Pure and Applied Geophysics
(PAGEOPH), Volume 165 (2008) No. 1
Editors:
Nemesio M. Pérez Sergio Gurrieri
Environmental Research Division Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e
Instituto Tecnológico y de Energias Vulcanologia
Renovables Sezione di Palermo
Polígono Industrial de Granadilla s/n V. Ugo La Malfa, 153
38611 Granadilla, Tenerife 90146 Palermo
Canary Islands Italy
Spain e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected]
Yuri Taran
Chi-Yu King Volcanology Department
Earthquake Prediction Research, Inc Institute of Geophysics
381 Hawthorne Ave. UNAM
Los Altos, CA 94022 3000, Av. Universidad
USA Mexico D.F., 04510
e-mail: [email protected] Mexico
e-mail: taran@geofisica.unam.mx
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006043001
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ISBN 978-3-7643-8737-2 Birkhäuser Verlag AG, Basel · Boston · Berlin
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PURE AND APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
Vol. 165, No. 1, 2008
Contents
1 Introduction
N.M.Pe´rez,S.Gurrieri,C.-Y.King,Y.Taran
5 SpatialandTemporalChangesofGroundwaterLevelInducedby
ThrustFaulting
Y.Chia,J.J.Chiu,Y.-H.Chiang,T.-P.Lee,C.-W.Liu
17 GeochemicalMonitoringofGeothermalWaters(2002–2004)alongtheNorth
Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey: Spatial and Temporal Variations and
RelationshiptoSeismicActivity
S.Su€er,N.Gu€lec¸,H.Mutlu,D.R.Hilton,C.C¸ifter,M.Sayin
45 Coupling Between Seismic Activity and Hydrogeochemistry at the Shillong
Plateau,NortheasternIndia
A.Skelton,L.Claesson,G.Chakrapani,C.Mahanta,J.Routh,
M.Mo¨rth,P.Khanna
63 RadonChangesAssociatedwiththeEarthquakeSequenceinJune2000inthe
SouthIcelandSeismicZone
P.Einarsson,P.Theodo´rsson,A´.R.Hjartardo´ttir,G.I.Guðjo´nsson
75 CO Degassing over Seismic Areas: The Role of Mechanochemical Produc-
2
tionattheStudyCaseofCentralApennines
F.Italiano,G.Martinelli,P.Plescia
95 ChangesintheDiffuseCO EmissionandRelationtoSeismicActivityinand
2
aroundElHierro,CanaryIslands
E.Padro´n,G.Melia´n,R.Marrero,D.Nolasco,J.Barrancos,G.Padilla,
P.A.Herna´ndez,N.M.Pe´rez
115 SO EmissionfromActiveVolcanoesMeasuredSimultaneouslybyCOSPEC
2
andmini-DOAS
J.Barrancos,J.I.Rosello´,D.Calvo,E.Padro´n,G.Melia´n,P.A.Herna´ndez,
N.M.Pe´rez,M.M.Milla´n,B.Galle
135 Underground Temperature Measurements as a Tool for Volcanic Activity
MonitoringintheIslandofTenerife,CanaryIslands
A. Eff-Darwich, J.Coello, R.Vin˜as, V.Soler,M.C. Martin-Luis,I.Farrujia,
M.L.Quesada,J.delaNuez
147 Carbon Dioxide Discharged through the Las Can˜adas Aquifer, Tenerife,
CanaryIslands
R.Marrero,D.L.Lo´pez,P.A.Herna´ndez,N.M.Pe´rez
173 ListofPublications
HiroshiWakitawasborninNishinomiya(Hyogo,Japan)onSeptember29,1936,andisactuallyanEmeritus
Professor at The University of Tokyo (Japan). He graduated with B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Gakushuin
University(Tokyo)in1962,1964and1968,respectively.He wasaResearcherattheJapanAtomicEnergy
ResearchInstitution,Tokyo(1964–68),ResearchAssociateatOregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,USA(1968–
71),ResearchAssociateattheUniversityofTokyo(1971–77),LectureatTheUniversityofTokyo(1977–78),
AssociateProfessoratTheUniversityofTokyo(1978–86),ProfessoratTheUniversityofTokyo(1986–97),
and Professor at the Gakushuin Women’s College, Tokyo (1998–2007). He was also the Director of the
Laboratory for Earthquake Chemistry at The University of Tokyo (1988–97), Associate Editor of Applied
Geochemistry(1992–96),PresidentoftheGeochemicalSocietyofJapan(1992–93),andVice-presidentofthe
GeochemistryResearchAssociation(1996).HereceivedtheMiyakePrizeforhiscontributionsonthefieldof
geochemistryfromtheGeochemistryResearchAssociationin1989.
Pureappl.geophys.165(2008)1–3 (cid:2)Birkha¨userVerlag,Basel,2008
0033–4553/08/010001–3 Pure and Applied Geophysics
DOI10.1007/s00024-007-0295-3
Introduction
Terrestrial Fluids, Earthquakes and Volcanoes: The Hiroshi Wakita Volume III is a
special publication to honor Professor Hiroshi Wakita for his scientific contributions to
science, which have been closely linked with one of the major objectives of the 2008
International Year for the Earth Planet. Reducing natural risks in active tectonic and
volcanicenvironmentsbysearchingforanddetectingearlywarningsignaturesrelatedto
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions has been a major research goal for Hiroshi Wakita.
ThevolumeIIIconsistsofnineoriginalpaperswrittenbyresearchersfromTaiwan,Italy,
Turkey, Iceland, USA, Sweden, India and Spain dealing with various aspects of the role
of terrestrial fluids in earthquake and volcanic processes, which reflect Prof. Wakita’s
wide scope of research interests. The volumes I and II consist of 17 and 10 original
contributions which were published in Pure and Applied Geophysics on May 2006 and
December 2007, respectively. These Pure and Applied Geophysics Hiroshi Wakita
volumesshouldbeusefulforactiveresearchersinthesubjectfield,andgraduatestudents
who wish to become acquainted with them.
Professor Wakita founded the Laboratory for Earthquake Chemistry in April 1978
with the aim of establishing a scientific base for earthquake prediction by means of
geochemical studies, and served as its director from 1988 until his retirement from the
university in 1997. He has made the laboratory a leading world center for the study of
earthquakesand volcanic activities by means ofgeochemical and hydrological methods.
Together with his research team and numerous foreign guest researchers whom he
attracted, he has made many significant contributions in the above-mentioned scientific
fields of interest. This achievement is a testimony for not only his scientific talent, but
also his enthusiasm, his open-mindedness, and his drive in obtaining both human and
financial support.
TheninecontributionsofthisvolumeIIIarearrangedintotwogroups.Thefirstgroup
of five papers deals with the movement and signatures of terrestrial fluids related to
earthquakesandactivetectonicregions. Thepaper byCHIAet al.describesthe observed
changesofgroundwaterlevelinducedbythrustfaultingduringtheM 7.6,1999Chi-Chi
w
earthquakerecordedin276monitoringwellsinTaiwan.Mostoftheobservedcoseismic
falls appeared near the seismogenic fault as well as other active faults, while coseismic
rises prevailed removed from the fault. The following paper by SU¨ER et al. presents the
results of the 2002–2004 geochemical monitoring period of terrestrial fluids in
geothermal fields located along an 800-km long E-W transect of the North Anatolian
2 N.M.Pe´rezetal. Pureappl.geophys.,
Fault Zone (NAFZ) in Turkey, in order to both characterize the chemical nature of the
individual fields and identify possible temporal variations associated with localized
seismic activity. The paper by SKELTON et al. describes transient hydrogeochemical
anomalies observed in a granite-hosted aquifer, which is located at a depth of 110-m,
northoftheShillongPlateau,Assam,India.Theironsetsprecededmoderateearthquakes
onDecember9,2004(M = 5.3)andFebruary15,2005(M = 5.0),respectively,206
W W
and 213 km from the aquifer. The observation of these two hydrogeochemical events
with the only two M C 5 earthquakes in the study area argues in favor of cause-
W
and-effect seismic-hydrogeochemical coupling. The paper by EINARSSON et al. describes
theobservedradonchangesingeothermalwatersfromdrillholesrelatedtoanearthquake
sequence at the transform plate boundary in South Iceland, which included two
magnitude 6.5 earthquakes in June 2000. The authors emphasize that these radon
anomalieswerelargeandunusualifcomparedtoa17-yearhistoryofradonmonitoringin
this area. The paper byITALIANO et al. provides field observations andnew experimental
data for the potential of the unexpected additional CO gas source production by
2
mechanical energy applied to carbonate rocks in active tectonic regions beside mantle-
derived CO or CO produced by thermometamorphism. Data collected during the
2 2
seismiccrisiswhichstrucktheCentralApenninesin1997–1998haveshownanenhanced
CO flux not associated with the presence of mantle or thermometamorphic-derived
2
fluids.
This earthquake-tectonic-related paper is then followed by four additional contribu-
tionsdealingwithobservationsrelatedtovolcanicprocesses.ThepaperbyPADRo´Netal.
describes the continuous monitoring of diffuse CO emission at El Hierro volcanic
2
system, Canary Islands (Spain) and the observed geochemical anomalies before the
occurrence of low magnitude seismic events in and around the volcanic island in 2004.
The authors applied the material Failure Forecast Method (FFM) on the diffuse CO
2
emissiondata toforecastsuccessfullythe firstseismic eventthat tookplaceinElHierro
in2004.Thefollowingvolcano-relatedpaperbyBARRANCOSetal.providesadditionaland
recent SO emission data from eight active volcanoes: Santa Ana (El Salvador), San
2
Cristo´balandMasaya(Nicaragua),ArenalandPoa´s(CostaRica),Tungurahua(Ecuador),
SierraNegra(Gala´pagos)andEtna(Italy).ThispaperalsodescribesacomparisonofSO
2
emissionmeasurementsbyCOSPECandmini-DOASshowingthatmostoftheobserved
relativedifferenceswerelowerthan10%.ThepaperbyEFF-DARWICHetal.describesthe
spatial distribution of groundwater temperatures in Tenerife (Canary Islands) thanks to
the vast network of *1.500 subhorizontal tunnels which provide most of the water
resourcesfortheisland.Geological,hydrologicalandvolcanologicalcharacteristicsseem
to be responsible for the actual groundwater temperature spatial distribution which has
been characterized during a quiescent period, in order to detect changes in heat flow
related to volcanic activity. The last volcano-related paper is also related to the
groundwater system at Tenerife, Canary Island (Spain). The paper by MARRERO et al.
provides an estimation of the water mass balance and the CO budget in Las Can˜adas’
2
aquifer; the largest aquifer on the island. The relatively high dissolved inorganic carbon
Vol.165,2008 Introduction 3
content in the groundwaters explains the ability of this aquifer to dissolve and transfer
magmatic CO , even during quiescence periods.
2
The guest editorial team would like to thank all the contributors, and reviewers
involved, who are listed below: R.M. Azzala, Werner Balderer, Alain Bernard, Emily
Brodsky, Giorgio Capasso, Carlo Cardellini, Yeeping Chia, Antonio Eff-Darwich,
WilliamsC.Evans,CinziaFederico,FaustoGrassa,JensHeinicke,PedroA.Herna´ndez,
David Hilton, GeorgeIgarashi,Kohei Kazahaya,NaojiKoizumi,PaoloMadonia,Rayco
Marrero, Norio Matsumoto, Agnes Mazot, Eleazar Padro´n, Antonio Paonita, J. W.
Rudnicki, Francesco Sortino, Jean-Paul Toutain, Nick Varley, Giuseppe Vilardo and
VivekWalia.SpecialthanksareduetoKennethMcGee,whoservedasco-guesteditorin
TheHiroshiWakitavolumeI,forhissupportofthisspecialissue,toPedroA.Herna´ndez
for his great assistance to the Guest-Editorial team, and to Renata Dmowska, without
whosemarvellousandtremendoussupporthelpthethirdspecialvolumewouldnothave
been possible.
Nemesio M. Pe´rez Chi-Yu King
Environmental Research Division Earthquake Prediction Research, Inc.
Instituto Tecnolo´gico y de Energ´ıas 381 Hawthorne Ave.
Renovables (ITER) Los Altos, CA 94022
Tenerife, Canary Islands USA
Spain
Yuri Taran
Sergio Gurrieri Institute of Geophysics
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de
Vulcanologia, V. Ugo La Malfa Me´xico (UNAM)
153 - 90146 Palermo Mexico D.F 04510
Italy Mexico
Pure appl. geophys. 165 (2008) 5-16 ' Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, 2008
0033^553/08/010005-1 2 (cid:149) D,,,. ^ ^» H Ar^r^li^r l r-^^,^l.woi..o
DOT 10.1007/S00024-007-0293-5 ’ ^^^^ ^" ^ Applied Geophysics
Spatial and Temporal Changes of Groundwater Leve l Induced
by Thrust Faulting
YEEPIN G CHIA/ JESSIE J. CHIU,^ YI-HSUA N CHIANG/ TSAI-PIN G LEE/ and CHEN-WUM G LIU"^
Abstract(cid:151)Changes of groundwater level, ranging from a fall of 11.10 m to a rise of 7.42 m, induced by
thrust faulting during the 1999 M ^ 7.6, Chi-Chi earthquake have been recorded in 276 monitoring wells in
Taiwan. Most coseismic falls appeared near the seismogenic fault as well as other active faults, while coseismic
rises prevailed away from the fault. Coseismic groundwater level rises and falls correlated fairly well with
hypocentral distance in the vicinity of the thrust fault. W e found a major difference of coseismic changes in
wells of different depths at most multiple-wel l stations. The recovery process of coseismic groundwater level
changes is associated with the confining condition of the aquifer. Cross-formational flow is likely to play an
important role in groundwater level changes after the earthquake. In the hanging wall of the thrust fault, an
abnormal decline of groundwater level was observed immediately before the earthquake. The underlying
mechanism of the unique preseismic change warrants further investigation.
Key words: Groundwater, Chi-Chi earthquake. Thrust fault, Coseismic, Postseismic, Preseismic.
1. Introduction
Water level in a well-confine d aquifer could be sensitive to crustal strain
(BREDEHOEFT , 1967). Field observations have shown a correlation between the estimated
tectonic strains and the coseismic changes of well water level during the 1974 Izu-Hanto-
Oki earthquake (WAKITA , 1975). Variations of groundwater level in seismic regions have
been used to monitor crustal deformation and to search for an earthquake precursor
(BAKU N and LINDH , 1985; KISSI N et al., 1996).
Coseismic groundwater level changes have been reported in many places around the
world (MONTGOMER Y and MANGA , 2003), howeve r most changes are either sparsely
distributed or concentrated in a few spots. Postseismic changes may reflect the subsurface
flow in response to coseismic changes or permeability changes (ROELOFFS, 1998; WAN G
et al., 2004). The observation of the flow process, particularly after small changes, is
often impeded by pumping or other hydrologic factors. Preseismic changes are seldom
^ Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan. E-mail: [email protected]
^ Atomi c Energy Council, Yonghe , Taipei 234, Taiwan.
^ Department of Bioenvironmen t System s Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
6 Y . Chia et al. Pure appl. geophys.,
reported (ROELOFFS and QUILTY , 1997; KOIZUM I and TSUKUDA , 1999), and the supporting
evidence and underlying mechanism of their relations to fault deformation or earthquakes
are not clear (KIN G et al, 2000).
Whil e studies pertaining to the distribution and process of earthquake-related
hydrologic phenomena are hampered by limited data, preliminary clues have been
obtained by examining groundwater level changes recorded by a dense monitoring well
network in the vicinity of a thrust fault ruptured during a large earthquake in Taiwan.
Here we use monitoring records before, during, and after the earthquake to enhance our
understanding of the spatial and temporal distribution as well as the possible mechanisms
of groundwater level changes induced by thrust faulting.
2. Earthquake and Monitoring Wells
On 21 Septembe r 1999, an earthquake of Mw 7.6 occurred near the town of Chi-Chi
in central Taiwan at 1:47 a.m. local time. The hypocentral depth was estimated to be
10 km (SHIN et al., 2000). The best fitting focal mechanism has a nodal plane with a strike
of 5(cid:176), a dip of 34(cid:176) and a rake of 65(cid:176)(CHAN G et al, 2000; KA O and CHEN, 2000). A s shown
in Figure 1, widespread surface rupture resulted from thrusting along the Chelungpu fault
extended approximately 100 km in the north-south direction (ANGELIE R et al, 2003). The
hanging wall is on the east side of the thrust fault. Field investigations and GPS data
indicated that the hanging wall move d as much as 10.1 m laterally and 8 m vertically. In
contrast, up to 1.5-m lateral displacement and 0.26-m vertical displacement were
observed in the footwall (Y u et al., 2001).
In the coastal plain of Taiwan, the second generation network of monitoring wells had
been installed since 1992 for improving groundwater resource management. A t the time
of the Chi-Chi earthquake, 377 monitoring wells were operational in Taiwan. In the
vicinity of the seismogenic fault, all wells, except one, are located in the footwall (west
side) of the fault. Groundwater level is recorded by the digital data logger at one-hour
interval. Som e wells equipped with the analog data logger also provide continuous
records. Al l of the monitoring wells were screened in highly permeable sand or gravel
layers. An y changes of groundwater level in the aquifer can, therefore, be quickly
reflected by changes of water level in the monitoring well.
3. Spatial Distribution of Coseismic Groundwater Changes
Coseismic changes of groundwater level in central western Taiwan due to the
Chi-Chi earthquake have been discussed by CHIA et al. (2001) and WAN G et al. (2001).
The mechanisms of these coseismic changes have been discussed by LEE et al. (2002),
WAN G et al. (2003), KOIZUM I et al. (2004) and LA I et al. (2004). Tw o types of coseismic
changes of water level were observed: oscillatory changes and persistent changes.
