Hydrology and Water Supply for Pond Aquaculture

496 Pages·1994·14.85 MB·English

by  Kyung H. Yoo

Hydrology and Water Supply
for
Pond Aquaculture
Hydrology and Water Supply
for
Pond Aquaculture
Kyung H. Yoo
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Auburn University, Alabama
Claude E. Boyd
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University, Alabama
An&mViBook
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
An AVIBook
Copyright © 1994 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1994
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1994
AH rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or utilized in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or by an information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Yoo, Kyung H., 1945-
Hydrology and water supply for pond aquaculturelKyung
H. Y 00 and Cluade E. Boyd.
p. cm.
"An AVI Book."
Includes bibliol!Taohicai references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4613-6133-6 ISBN 978-1-4615-2640-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2640-7
1. Fish ponds-Design and construction. 2. Fish ponds-Water-
supply. 3. Water-supplyengineering. 1. Boyd, Claude E.
II. Title
SHI57.85.F52Y66 1993
639.3'II-dc20 92-26643
CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
Contents
Preface, ix
Symbols, xi
Abbreviations, xix
Customary Metric Conversion Factors, xxi
Introduction 1
Amount of Water Use, 2
Sources of Water, 3
Ponds, 5
Alternatives to Ponds, 7
Water Supply Development, 7
Environmental Impacts, 8
PART I: HYDROLOGY, MORPHOMETRY, AND SOILS
1 Physical Properties of Water and Water Cycle 13
1.1 Introduction, 13
1.2 Physical Properties, 13
1.3 Pressure, 23
1.4 Water Flow, 27
1.5 The Hydrologic Equation, 31
1.6 Watersheds, 32
1.7 The Water Cycle, 32
1.8 Distribution of Water on the Earth's Surface, 35
2 Rainfall 37
2.1 Introduction, 37
2.2 The Process, 37
2.3 Types of Rainfall, 39
2.4 Transportation of Water Vapor and Precipitation, 42
2.5 Measuring Rainfall, 47
2.6 Rainfall at a Point, 49
2.7 Rainfall over an Area, 58
3 Evaporation 63
3.1 Introduction, 63
3.2 The Process, 64
vi Contents
3.3 Estimates of Evaporation, 65
3.4 Measuring Evaporation with Instruments, 69
3.5 Evaporation Rates, 72
3.6 Precipitation-Evaporation Relationship, 76
3.7 Water Loss by Plants, 77
3.8 Determining Evapotranspiration, 80
3.9 Rates of Evapotranspiration, 88
3.10 Hydroclimate, 90
4 Runoff 92
4.1 Introduction, 92
4.2 The Process, 92
4.3 Methods for Estimating Runoff, 93
4.4 Amounts of Runoff, 108
4.5 Streams, 112
5 Water Requirements for Aquacultural Ponds 121
5.1 Introduction, 121
5.2 Basic Water Budget Equations, 121
5.3 Measurements of Variables, 122
5.4 Examples of Measured Water Budgets, 129
5.5 Estimating Water Requirements, 132
5.6 Climatic Factors, 143
5.7 Seepage Effects on Water Requirements, 146
5.8 Pond-Filling Time, 147
6 Water Conservation 148
6.1 Introduction, 148
6.2 Control of Evaporation, 148
6.3 Seepage Reduction, 151
6.4 Storage Capabilities, 157
6.5 Water Harvesting, 160
6.6 Water Reuse, 162
7 Morphometric and Edaphic Factors Affecting
Pond Design 164
7.1 Introduction, 164
7.2 Morphometry, 164
7.3 Soils, 171
7.4 Sediment, 181
7.5 Turbidity and Color, 185
PART II: DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY AND POND SYSTEMS
8 Open-Channel Flows 189
8.1 Introduction, 189
8.2 Conservation of Energy in Open-Channel Flows, 189
Contents vii
8.3 Continuity Equation, 192
8.4 The Manning Equation, 193
8.5 Best Hydraulic Section, 198
8.6 Stability of Open Channels, 199
8.7 Channel Design, 207
9 Pipe Flows 224
9.1 Introduction, 224
9.2 Hydraulic Principles of Pipe Flows, 224
9.3 Head Losses in Pipe Flows, 231
9.4 Design Techniques of Pipelines, 241
9.5 Water Hammer, 249
9.6 Culverts, 251
9.7 Siphons, 260
10 Water Measurement 264
10.1 Introduction, 264
10.2 Units, 264
10.3 Principles of Water Measurement, 265
10.4 Small Flows, 266
10.5 Water Measurement of Open-Channel Flows, 267
10.6 Water Measurement of Pipe Flows, 292
10.7 Water Measurement for Culverts and Siphons, 299
11 Pumps and Pumping 300
11.1 Introduction, 300
11.2 Centrifugal Pumps, 301
11.3 Performance of Centrifugal Pumps, 309
11.4 Power Units, 331
11.5 Pump Selection, 349
11.6 Cost of Pumping Water, 352
11.7 Installation of Pumps, 355
11.8 Operation and Maintenance of Pumps, 355
12 Ground Water and Wells 359
12.1 Introduction, 359
12.2 Aquifers, 359
12.3 Wells, 370
12.4 Pumping of Ground Water, 389
12.5 Well Test, 393
12.6 Well Construction, 394
13 Pond Design and Construction 397
13.1 Introduction, 397
13.2 Site Selection, 398
13.3 Soils, 400
13.4 Embankments, 405
13.5 Water-Control Structures, 413
Vlll Contents
13.6 Pond Bottom, 425
13.7 Other Features, 426
13.8 Excavated Ponds, 427
13.9 Surveying and Staking, 428
13.10 Example Problems for Pond Design, 429
14 Pond Effluents 438
14.1 Introduction, 438
14.2 Water Quality in Ponds, 439
14.3 Volume of Effluents, 443
14.4 Dilution and Assimilation by Receiving Waters, 444
14.5 Effects of Effluents on Water Supply, 445
14.6 Mitigation, 446
14.7 Environmental Impact of Aquaculture, 448
Appendix A Conversion Tables 453
Appendix B Determining Friction Head Losses due to
Pipe and Pipe Fittings 459
References 469
Index, 479
Preface
In 1979, several graduate students in the Department of Fisheries and
Allied Aquacultures at Auburn University met with one of the authors
(CEB) and asked him to teach a new course on water supply for aqua
culture. They felt that information on climatology, hydrology, water
distribution systems, pumps, and wells would be valuable to them. Most
of these students were planning to work in commercial aquaculture in
the United States or abroad, and they thought that such a cdurse would
better prepare them to plan aquaculture projects and to communicate
with engineers, contractors, and other specialists who often become
involved in the planning and construction phases of aquaculture en
deavors. The course was developed, and after a few years it was decided
that more effective presentation of some of the material could be made
by an engineer. The other author (KHY) accepted the challenge, and
three courses on the water supply aspects of aquaculture are now offered
at Auburn University. A course providing background in hydrology is
followed by courses on selected topics from water supply engineering.
Most graduate programs in aquaculture at other universities will even
tually include similar coursework, because students need a formal intro
duction to this important, yet somewhat neglected, part of aquaculture.
We have written this book to serve as a text for a course in water
supply for aquaculture or for individual study. The book is divided into
two parts. Part I, "Hydrology, Morphometry, and Soils," is concerned
with hydrological phenomena that affect pond design, construction, and
management. Part II, "Design of Water Supply and Pond Systems,"
deals primarily with engineering techniques used in design and con
struction of pond aquaculture facilities.
The information in this book is not intended for specialists in the fields
of water supply engineering or hydrology. It was written to provide
individuals involved in pond aquaculture projects a background on the
major points that must be addressed in site selection, design of ponds
and water supply systems, and operation of ponds within restraints
imposed by local hydrology and other environmental factors. Never
theless, water supply specialists who have never been involved in aqua
culture projects may find this book useful as an orientation to the kinds
of problems involved in water supply engineering for aquaculture.
ix
x Preface
In the Vnited States, and in many other nations, nearly all practical
work in hydrology and engineering uses the V.S. Customary System of
units, and since most of the information available to us for preparing this
text was in these units, we used them throughout the text. However,
for a few topics, such as properties of water and consumption of elec
tricity, we used metric units because they are almost always given that
way. We see no benefit in one system of units over another in practical
work, because there is no international standard for measurements in
daily endeavors. For example, in shrimp farming, production is reported
in pounds per hectare in Ecuador and in kilograms per rai (a unit equal
to 1600 m2) in Thailand. Nearly anywhere in the world, you are likely to
hear pipe sizes reported in inches and motor power in horsepower.
However, discharge may be given in cubic meters per second. We find
this slightly bewildering mixture of units rather refreshing. After all,
variety is a very useful thing; it keeps us alert and prevents monotony.
Readers accustomed to other systems of measurement can readily convert
from V.S. Customary units to their system. Appendix A lists factors for
converting V.S. Customary units to metric units, and vice versa.
The authors are indebted to many individuals and organizations in
preparing this book. We are grateful to Nathan Stone, Barnaby Watten,
Delbert Fitzsimmons, George Bloomsburg, Bryan Duncan, Eugene
Rochester, and others who provided information or reviewed chapters of
the manuscript. We also appreciate the assistance of Teresa Rodriguez
and Steve Etheridge with the illustrations. The typing and editorial help
provided by June Burns and Margaret Tanner was extremely valuable.
The authors are also indebted to the following V.S. government
agencies for use of their published materials; V.S. Soil Conservation
Service, V.S. Bureau of Reclamation, V.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and U.S. National Weather Service.
Most of all the authors wish to thank their families for their patience
and encouragement during this difficult task.
Symbols
Chapter 1
A = area, cross-sectional area of flow (length2)
D = depth of fluid
F = force
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2 or 9.8 m/sec2)
HL = head loss between two points
Hv = velocity head (ft or m)
i = hydraulic gradient (ftlft)
K = hydraulic conductivity (length/time)
n = porosity
P = pressure
Q = discharge (length3/time)
v = velocity of topmost layer (ftlsec or m/sec)
Z = elevation of a point above the reference plane
v = kinematic viscosity
p = density
y = unit weight of water (62.4lb/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3)
TJ = absolute viscosity
Chapter 2
ea = actual vapor pressure
es = saturation vapor pressure
RH = relative humidity in percent
Chapter 3
b = empirical coefficient(s)
Cp = pan coefficient
D = deep percolation of water that drains from soil
E = evaporation (in.lhr)
e = vapor pressure (in. Hg)
ea = actual vapor pressure (in. Hg)
ea5 = actual vapor pressure at 5 ft above ground level (in. Hg)
Eday = daily evaporation (in.lday)
EL = evaporation from lake
Ep = evaporation from pan
ET = evapotranspiration
ETD = daily evapotranspiration (mm)
ETM = monthly evapotranspiration (mm)
xi