Encyclopedia of Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine

9932 Pages·2004·291.47 MB·English

by  Robert A. Meyers

1
Adipocytes
1 1,2
Todd Leff and James G. Granneman
1
Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine,
Detroit, MI, USA
2
Department of Psychiatry, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit,
MI, USA
1 Introduction – Adipocytes and the Regulation of Metabolism 3
2 Physiology of the Adipocyte 4
2.1 Absorption and Storage of Circulating Lipid 4
2.2 Mobilization and Release of Stored Lipid into the Circulation 5
2.3 Regulatory Mechanisms that Balance Lipid Storage and Utilization 6
2.4 Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ 6
3 Developmental Origin of Adipocytes 9
3.1 Adipose Tissue Development and Plasticity 9
3.2 Differentiation of Adipocytes from Precursor Cells 11
4 Adipose Dysfunction and Metabolic Disease 13
4.1 Obesity – Too Much Fat 14
4.2 Lipodystrophy – Too Little Fat 15
5 The Adipocyte as a Therapeutic Target for Metabolic Disease 15
5.1 Antidiabetic PPARγ Ligands Act on Adipocytes 16
Bibliography 18
Books and Reviews 18
Primary Literature 19
Encyclopedia of Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, 2nd Edition. Edited by Robert A. Meyers.
Copyright  2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
ISBN: 3-527-30543-2
2 Adipocytes
Keywords
Metabolism
The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life;
the interconnected sequences of mostly enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions by which
a cell, tissue, organ, etc., sustains energy production, and synthesizes and breaks down
complex molecules.
Lipids
Any of the large group of fats and fatlike compounds which occur in living organisms
and are characteristically soluble in certain organic solvents but only sparingly soluble
in water.
Fatty Acids
Long-chain aliphatic compounds that contain a carboxylic acid group.
Gene Expression
The process by which a gene’s coded information is converted into the structures
present and operating in the cell. Expressed genes include those that are transcribed
into mRNA and then translated into protein and those that are transcribed into RNA
but not translated into protein (e.g., transfer and ribosomal RNAs).
Transcription Factors
The DNA binding proteins that carry out the organic process whereby the DNA
sequence in a a gene is copied into mRNA.
Nuclear Receptors
Transcription factors that are activated by the binding of specific ligans that are usually
lipid soluble, such as fatty acids or steroids.
Adipose Tissue
Body tissue which is able to store high amounts of neutral fats.
Adipocytes
The cell type found in adipose tissue that is specialized for storage of neutral lipids.
■ The adipocyte, or fat cell, is a unique, highly specialized cell whose primary function
is to provide a depot for storage of excess fat, derivedmainly from the diet, which can
be mobilized and distributed to other tissues as dictated by the energetic demands
of the organism. Although long thought of as a simple passive storage depot for
dietary lipid, it is now clear that adipose tissue plays a very active role in regulating
energy balance and not only stores and secretes lipid as needed, but also produces
hormonal signals that have multiple effects on energy metabolism in many tissue
Adipocytes 3
and organs throughout the body. This new view of adipose tissue (and the adipocyte)
as a key regulator of fuel metabolism and partitioning has dramatically increased
the interest in the role that this tissue plays not only in normal physiology but also
in the etiology and treatment of important metabolic diseases such as diabetes and
obesity.
1 In healthy individuals, excess fat is
Introduction – Adipocytes and the stored in adipocytes while only low
Regulation of Metabolism
amounts of triglyceride are maintained in
nonadipocytes. It is thought that in obese
Although the physiology of adipose tissue
individuals, the capacity for adipose tissue
and the molecular and cellular biology of
to accommodate excess lipid is exceeded,
the adipocyte have been subjects of re-
resulting in the abnormal accumulation
search interest for many years, new work
of lipid in other tissues. This elevation in
in this area has transformed our under-
intracellular triglyceride content has been
standing of the adipocyte and its role in
associated with physiological dysfunction
regulating human physiology. We now
(lipotoxicity) that contributes to the devel-
recognize that in addition to its long appre- opment of obesity-related type 2 diabetes.
ciated function as a lipid storage depot, the This pathological accumulation of lipid in
adipocyte plays a much more active role nonadipose tissue may be the result of a
in regulating whole body fuel partitioning physiological dysfunction of the adipocyte
and metabolism. The growing interest in that is induced by the obese state. In this
the physiology of adipose tissue and the chapter, we will review the current state of
role that it plays in metabolic regulation is knowledge about fat cell lipid metabolism,
fueled to a large degree by the realization and how adipocytes function to balance
that we are in the midst of a growing lipid storage and mobilization to meet
epidemic of the metabolic disorders of the energetic demands of the organism
diabetes and obesity. In most developed without exposing nonadipose tissues to
countries, the incidence of both of these deleterious fat accumulation.
diseases has increased dramatically in the In addition to its function as an energy-
past few decades. Currently (as of 2003), storage depot, we now understand that
there are 16 million diabetics in theUnited adipose tissue is also a bona fide en-
States, and the incidence of the disease has docrine organ, secreting hormones that
increased by 49% from 1990 to 2000, with regulate fat metabolism in other tissues
projections indicating a 165% increase by throughout the body. The list of biologi-
2050. There has also been a dramatic in- cally active peptides known to be secreted
crease in the incidence of obesity, with over by fat cells has grown significantly in re-
one-third of the population in the United cent years, and although the physiological
States now classified as obese. Although function ofmost of these adipocyte-derived
the causal relationship between diabetes hormones (adipokines) is not fully under-
and obesity is not fully understood, a likely stood, it is clear that they are important
common link is the adipocyte. components of the physiological system
4 Adipocytes
that controls lipid storage, distribution, Adipose tissue is highly specialized for
and utilization throughout the body. Our the storage of lipid energy in the form of
current knowledge of the regulation of triglycerides and the mobilization of that
adipokine production and their down- energy in the form of free fatty acids. Of
streammetabolic effects is reviewed below. the energy substrates utilized by tissues,
Our increased understanding of the ac- lipid is most efficiently stored and pro-
tive role that adipocytes play in regulating vides greater than twice the energy per
metabolism has stimulated a growing in- gram than either carbohydrate (glycogen)
terest in adipose tissue as a therapeutic or protein. The significance of this energy
target for new agents to treat diabetes, reserve is readily appreciated when consid-
obesity, and other metabolic diseases. ering that a man of normal body weight
The underlying assumption for this ef- (70 kg, 10% body fat) can survive 40 days
fort is that drugs acting on adipocyte lipid on energy reserves stored in adipose tissue.
metabolism parameters or on hormone
2.1
production pathways could have benefi-
Absorption and Storage of Circulating Lipid
cial effects on metabolic abnormalities of
diabetes and obesity. In support of this
Energy is stored in adipocytes in the form
possibility are recent findings, which are
of triglycerides and is mainly derived from
reviewed below, demonstrating that an im-
dietary fat, and de novo biogenesis from
portant family of antidiabetic drugs acts,
liver and within adipose tissue. Although
at least in part, by modulating adipocyte
human adipose tissue is capable of synthe-
physiology. A complete understanding of
sizing lipid de novo, most triglycerides that
the medical significance of the adipocyte
accumulate in the tissue are derived di-
will require a comprehensive knowledge
rectly or indirectly from dietary fat. Dietary
of the development of adipocytes and
fat is digested in the gut and repackaged as
adipose tissue, of molecular biology and
chylomicrons that are delivered to the sys-
physiology of mature adipocyte, as well
temic circulation via the lymphatics. The
as the interaction of adipose tissue with
liver also plays a major role in the produc-
the broader regulatory systems that con-
tion and packaging of lipids in the form
trol the whole body energy balance and
of various lipoproteins that are targeted
fuel partitioning.
for utilization in various target tissues,
including adipose tissue.
A major mechanism for clearing
2
Physiology of the Adipocyte chylomicrons and very low density
lipoproteins (VLDL) from the circulation
Perhaps the most well-established func- is through the action of lipoprotein lipase
tion of adipose tissue in man is as a (LPL). As mentioned above, adipocytes
reservoir for the storage and mobilization express LPL, which is released and
of energy. Cells of the body utilize energy targeted to the capillary endothelium
continuously, yet fuel is obtained from (Fig. 1). There, LPL acts on circulating
external sources intermittently. Thus, an- chylomicrons and VLDL, hydrolyzing the
imals have a need to be able to efficiently neutral lipid core and releasing free fatty
store energy when food is available and ac- acids. The free fatty acids that are released
cess that energy during periods of fasting. can cross cell membranes and enter
Adipocytes 5
Fed state – High insulin Fasted state – Low insulin
Catecholamines
Nucleus Nucleus
cAMP
TG-rich
lipoprotein
HSL +
LPL LPL
LPL
HSL
Lipid LPL Lipid FA
droplet droplet FA Albumin
(TG) (TG)
TG FA
Adipocyte Adipocyte
Capillary Capillary
Fig. 1 Lipid storage and mobilization in adipocytes during fed and fasted states. See text for
details. Flux of dietary lipid from circulating lipoprotein particles to the adipocyte lipid droplet
is shown in green. Flux of stored lipid from adipocyte back into circulation shown in blue. TG,
triglyceride; FA, fatty acid; HSL, hormone-sensitive lipase; LPL, lipoprotein lipase. (See color
plate p. xxii).
adipocytes directly. Additionally, fatty acids work indicates that the lipid droplet is an
can enter adipocytes via transport proteins, extension of the endoplasmic reticulum
such as CD36 and FATP1. The flow surrounded by a single phospholipid layer.
of free fatty acids is governed by its Closely associated with the lipid droplet
concentration gradient. In the case of are ‘‘coat proteins’’, especially perilipin
isoforms and caveolin 2. Perilipin is the
adipocytes, free fatty acid (FFA) that enter
most abundant target for phosphorylation
cells quickly encounter proteins that bind
by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase
FFA, such as members of the fatty acid
(PK) in fat cells, and plays a key role
binding protein (FABP) family involved
in the retention and mobilization of
in cytoplasmic transport, or enzymes
energy from lipid droplets. The energy
involved in metabolic conversion into
contained in the droplet is liberated when
triglyceride, such as long chain acyl-
the triglyceride is hydrolyzed into free
CoA synthase, thereby maintaining a
fatty acids and glycerol. The rate-limiting
significant concentration gradient.
step in this process is the activity of
hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) at the
2.2
Mobilization and Release of Stored Lipid surface of the lipid droplet. Although
into the Circulation several protein kinases can influence
lipolytic rate, the most significant of these
Triglycerides are typically storedwithin the is cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase
adipocyte as a single lipid droplet. Recent (PKA). Overall, the rate of lipolysis is
6 Adipocytes
closely governed by the phosphorylation synthesis of LPL whose expression coin-
state of perilipin and HSL. Recent work cides with the peak of triglyceride absorp-
indicates that phosphorylation of perilipin tion. Insulin and chylomicrons also stim-
onmultiple residues allows recruitment of ulate the secretion of acylation stimulation
phosphorylated HSL to the surface of the protein – a proteinmade by adipocytes that
lipid droplet where triglyceride hydrolysis strongly promotes triglyceride synthesis.
can take place. Phosphorylation of HSL Insulin also promotes de novo fatty acid
has only a modest effect on the activity of synthesis from glucose by stimulating glu-
the enzyme; rather, the dramatic increase cose uptake and the expression of lipogenic
in lipolysis produced by PKA-activation enzymes.
reflects the translocation and accessibility Fatty acids, derived fromadipose tissues,
of the enzyme to its substrate within are an important energy source during
the cell. HSL appears to be physically fasting, exercise, and stress. As men-
associated with the cytosolic FABP4 (aP2). tioned above, the overall rate of lipolysis is
The significance of this association is not largely governed by the relative activation
known, but could involve regulation of of PKA. The activity of PKA is governed
HSL activity or efflux of mobilized fatty by cAMP levels, which in turn are con-
acids. In this regard, mice lacking FABP4 trolled by receptors coupled positively (beta
show reduced rates of lipolysis. adrenergic, glucagon, ACTH) or negatively
Efflux of fatty acids from the fat cell (adenosine, niacin, alpha2, adrenergic) to
and their transport across the capillary adenylyl cyclase. In addition, insulin reg-
endothelium are thought to occur through ulates adipocyte cAMP levels by activating
passive diffusion across a concentration phosphodiesterase PDE3b that degrades
gradient, although this process has not cAMP. The nature of the pathways con-
been studied in detail. Long-chain fatty trolling lipolysis depends on physiological
acids are essentially insoluble in aqueous circumstances. Lipolysis, in response to
solution and thus rely on carrier proteins stress and exercise, is highly dependent on
for transport. In plasma, fatty acids are the activity of the sympathetic innervation
immediately bound with high affinity to of adipose tissue as well as the release of
serum albumin, which serves as a carrier epinephrine from the adrenal gland. Dur-
of these substrates to the sites of oxidation. ing fasting, lipolysis does not depend on
During fasting, mobilized fatty acids are neural activity, but rather appears to result
quickly removed from the circulation, with from decline in insulin that provides tonic
a half-life of about two minutes, and activation of PDE3b.
provide an important source of energy for
2.4
heart and skeletal muscle.
Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ
2.3
Regulatory Mechanisms that Balance Lipid As described above, the primary metabolic
Storage and Utilization role of the adipocyte is to absorb and
store excess lipid in the form of triglyc-
The pathways that promote FFA up- eride, and to make it available to other
take and esterification to triglyceride are tissues in the body as energy needs dic-
strongly regulated by hormones, particu- tate, by measured release of fatty acids
larly insulin. Insulin strongly promotes the into the circulation. Proper functioning of
Adipocytes 7
Tab. 1 Metabolically active proteins secreted by adipocytes.
Protein/hormone Physiological effects
Leptin Appetite, autonomic nervous activity
Adiponectin Insulin sensitivity, fatty acid oxidation
Resistin Insulin sensitivity
TNF-α Insulin sensitivity, adipocyte differentiation, inflammation
ANG II Lipogenesis, blood pressure
ASP Lipogenesis
IGF Lipogenesis, adipocyte differentiation
Interleukin-6 Lipolysis in adipocytes, inflammation
Kinins Insulin sensitivity, tissue remodeling
PAI-1 Insulin sensitivity, blood clotting, atherosclerosis
TGF-β Lipolysis, angiogenesis
Notes: ANG: angiotensin; ASP: acylation-stimulating protein; IGF: insulin-like
growth factor; PAI-1: plasminogen activator inhibitor; TNF: tumor necrosis factor;
TGF: transforming growth factor. Table adapted from Schling, P., Loffler, G.
(2002) Cross talk between adipose tissue cells: impact on pathophysiology, News
Physiol. Sci. 17, 99–104.
this system requires communication be- that adipocytes secrete hormones that act
tween adipose tissue and essentially all at specific sites in the body and have im-
the organ systems in the body. In addi- portant effects on many aspects of energy
tion to the hormonal and neural signals metabolism. This new understanding of
that regulate lipid uptake and storage, adipose tissue as an endocrine organ has
or induce lipolysis and release of fatty dramatically changed our understanding
acids into the circulation during a fast of the significance of adipocytes in the
(discussed above), there are signals that regulation of metabolism. It is now be-
originate in adipose tissue that act to lieved that the adipose-derived hormones
modify various physiological activities in (referred to as adipokines) are important
tissues and organs throughout the body. components of the integrated system of
For example, to insure that dietary in- hormonal and neural signaling pathways
take is sufficient to maintain an adequate that function to regulate the storage and
level of adiposity, there must be com- use of metabolic energy. The following is
munication between adipose tissue and a brief summary of the biology of four
the centers in the brain that control ap- of the adipokines that have relatively clear
petite. Likewise, there is communication effects on metabolism. Table 1 presents a
between adipose tissue and the organs, more complete list of hormone like pro-
and the tissues that utilize fat for en- teins produced by adipocytes.
ergy to insure that fatty acid delivered to The seminal contribution to the concept
nonadipose tissues, such as muscle and that adipose tissue produces hormones
liver, are handled properly and do not ac- with importantmetabolic effects wasmade
cumulate to abnormal levels. One of the by Friedman and colleagues in 1994. These
major advances in metabolic research in investigators identified the protein prod-
the last few years has been the discovery uct of the obese (ob) gene that causes
8 Adipocytes
severe obesity in mice when mutated. Lep- on chromosome 3 that is associated with
tin is secreted from adipose tissue and diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Treat-
regulates body weight by acting directly ment of rodents with adiponectin was
in the CNS to inhibit feeding behav- found to increase muscle fatty acid ox-
ior. The control of leptin synthesis and idation, reverse insulin resistance and
secretion is still poorly understood. In improve hepatic insulin action. Together,
general, leptin production and secretion these observations suggest that the phys-
are promoted under conditions of positive iological role of adiponectin may be to
energy balance (fed state, high insulin) promote lipid oxidation in nonadipose tis-
and suppressed by conditions of net en- sues; in essence it may be a signal from
ergy deficit (e.g. fasting, catabolic hormone fat indicating to the rest of the body
stimulation). As such, plasma leptin lev- that lipid energy is available and should
els correlate strongly with total adipose be used.
tissue mass, and thereby provide an in- In contrast to adiponectin, an adipokine
tegrated, long-term signal indicating the that has recently been identified called re-
status of lipid reserves. The actions of sistin appears to have diabetes-promoting
leptin are mediated through specific cell effects on metabolism. While adiponectin
surface receptors, which are located in key clearly promotes fatty acid oxidation and
central and peripheral target cells. Activa- appears to have insulin-sensitizing effects
tion of leptin receptors in diverse brain throughout the body, resistin (also known
regions signal a state of positive energy as adipocyte secreted factor, ADSF or
balance. Leptin-sensitive neural systems FIZZ3) was found to be over-expressed
regulate the activity of the autonomic ner- in rodent models of diet-induced obesity
vous system involved in energy storage and to induce insulin resistance and glu-
and mobilization, feeding behavior, repro- cose intolerance in normal mice. These
ductive physiology, and sexual behavior. data suggest that resistin acts in a converse
Leptin may also have direct effects on manner to adiponectin, increasing insulin
energy metabolism in peripheral tissues resistance and promoting the development
such as muscle, where it has been re- of diabetes. However, this relationship
ported to cause an increase in fatty acid between resistin and diabetes was not ob-
oxidation rates. Although leptin behaves served in all models of the disease and
as an antiobesity hormone in certain ani- additional work will need to be carried out
mal models, common human obesity does to fully clarify the role of resistin as an-
not appear to be due to abnormally low other potential link between obesity and
leptin levels. diabetes. Another potentially prodiabetic
Another recently identified adipocyte- adipokine is the inflammatory cytokine tu-
secreted hormone that may play a role mor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), which is
in both obesity and diabetes is adiponectin secreted by adipocytes under some circum-
(also called ACRP30 or adipoQ). Origi- stances. TNFα production by adipocytes
nally identified as a secreted fat-specific is elevated in obese rodents and humans
protein whose expression was induced and positively correlates with insulin resis-
following adipogenesis, adiponectin lev- tance and in some studies inactivation of
els were found to be reduced in obesity TNFα using antibody treatment improved
and increased by weight loss. In addi- insulin action. As with resistin, the com-
tion, the adiponectin gene maps to a region bination of elevated expression in obesity
Adipocytes 9
and insulin resistance promoting activity and fat cell differentiation varies according
of these adipokines raises the possibility to location in the body. Adipocytes within
that it contributes to the functional link fat tissue are thought to derive initially
between obesity and diabetes. Although a from mesenchymal progenitors capable
great deal more work needs to be done in of differentiating into bone, muscle, as
this area before we can fully appreciate the well as fat. Mesenchymal cells that are
multiple roles that adipokine hormones highly committed to the adipocyte lineage
play in the regulation of metabolism, it first appear closely associated with ves-
is clear that they are a crucial component sel formation, and there appears to be a
of the physiological system that regulates close reciprocal association of developing
energy balance and fuel partitioning. fat cells with angiogenesis. This is not
surprising since early committed cells ex-
press lipoprotein lipase that is targeted
3 at the capillary lumen, and provides the
Developmental Origin of Adipocytes mechanism for the transport of dietary
triglyceride to fill the developing fat cells.
3.1
As fat cells develop, triglycerides coalesce
Adipose Tissue Development and Plasticity
into small lipid droplets (nearly all ofwhich
are triglycerides) within the cytoplasm that
The basic functional unit of adipose tis-
eventually fuse to form a large single lipid
sue is the adipocyte. Nevertheless, adipose
droplet. The typicalmature adipocyte is rel-
tissue is complex and contains several
atively large (30–50 micron diameter) and
cell types in addition to adipocytes, such
can reach a size of greater than 120 µm
as endothelial cells, interstitial cells, un-
under certain conditions (Fig. 2).
differentiated mesenchymal cells, peri- Experimental investigations of adipose
cytes, and ‘‘very small adipocytes’’. Indeed, tissue have mainly utilized rodent models,
adipocytes constitute less than 20% of the although it is important to note that the
cells residing in typical adult fat tissue. ontogeny of adipose tissue varies widely
Moreover, there are very important inter- among species, and even among fat depots
actions among the various cell types that within a given species. In rodent models,
are critical to the proper functioning of white adipose tissue generally appears late
the tissue. In view of the huge increase in embryonic development and continues
in obesity rates in the United States, and to expand and differentiate during the
its negative impact on health, new atten- neonatal period prior to weaning. Classic
tion has been focused on the development, ‘‘flash’’ labeling experiments with an
3
maintenance, and plasticity of this impor- H thymidine have shown that most
tant tissue. proliferation of cells that are destined
Analysis of adipose tissue histogenesis to become adipocytes occurs in the first
and remodeling has relied mainly upon postnatal week. Mitoses are mostly found
descriptive approaches to define cell phe- in poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells
notypes and deduce their transition to that are closely associated with developing
mature cells. Inhumans, adipose tissue ap- capillaries. The transition of cells from
pears as distinct lobules during the second mesenchymal progenitors to mature cells
trimester of fetal development. The spe- can be deduced by evaluating the cellular
3
cific timing of adipose tissue histogenesis distribution of H label over time following