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SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF DAILY LIFE
Encyclopediaof
Food
And Culture
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EDITORIAL BOARD
Christopher Breward
London College of Fashion
Joanne B. Eicher
University of Minnesota
John S. Major
China Institute
Phyllis Tortora
Author of Understanding Textiles, The Fairchild Encyclopedia of Fashion Accessories, and The
Fairchild’s Dictionary of Textiles
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SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF DAILY LIFE
Encyclopediaof
Food
And Culture
VOLUME 3:
Occult Dress to Zoran, Index
Valerie Steele, Editor in Chief
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Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion
Valerie Steele, Editor in Chief
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Encyclopedia of clothing and fashion / Valerie Steele, editor in chief.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
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1. Clothing and dress—History—Encyclopedias. I. Steele, Valerie II. Series.
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O
OCCULT DRESS Occultism is any nonmainstream Occult dress is also used to indicate status within a
Western system of spirituality that uses magic, the defi- group. Wiccan high priestesses of Alexandrian lineages in-
nition of magic being the way in which internal thoughts dicate status to other initiates by a colored leg garter. Also,
are used to effect changes in the outside world. Occultists, a waist cord may be worn in the same group to indicate
such as northern European Pagans (e.g., Wiccans, the wearer having taken oaths pertaining to a level of ini-
Druids, and witches) and ceremonial magicians (Cabal- tiation. Other occult groups, such as the Order of Bards,
ists, hermetics, and the like) practice magic as part of their Ovates, and Druids, who originated in England, wear col-
religions. Occult dress is used when participating in ored robes denoting rank during some occult ceremonies.
magic rites, rituals, or ceremonies. Western occult dress Cultural disposition is another motivation for spe-
has three primary functions: (1) to psychologically place cific occult dress. For example, Asatru practitioners may
the wearer in an extraordinary sense of reality; (2) to iden- don tunics and mantles of historic Germanic styles to de-
tify the status of the wearer within a social group; and (3) note their affiliation to the ancient Teutonic religion.
to indicate the beliefs of the wearer. Celtic knotwork designs on clothing and jewelry may be
worn to show an affiliation to Druidism and other an-
Clothing cient Celtic spiritualities.
Occult beliefs promote nudity as occult dress, because Western occult dress tends to be self-manufactured
clothing is believed to impede the flow of magical ener- (sewn by the practitioner or by a fellow occult member),
gies through the body from the surrounding environment. or if technical skills are lacking, utilizes existing everyday
Wicca practitioners and witches have traditionally per- clothing for a magical purpose such as a silk bathrobe
formed rites in the nude to show their devotion to the purchased at a department store that could be worn in
Wiccan goddess. Due to modesty or weather, some oc- ritual as magical raiment.
cultists wear robes or tunics with bare feet and no un-
dergarments. This latter dress is believed to still allow the Jewelry
flow of magical energies. Many covens and magical groups Jewelry is used to indicate occult status or beliefs. A Wic-
have set occult dress guidelines, using tradition or per- can priestess may don a silver tiara or crown emblazoned
sonal tastes as a basis for these guidelines. Occult dress, with moon-phase symbols, while a Wiccan practitioner
especially nudity, is not a common Western mode of or a Witch may wear a necklace with a moon or femi-
dress, therefore it psychologically alerts and reinforces the nine symbol. Both silver metal and the moon symbolize
awareness of special occasions and presence of magic for the Goddess and feminine energies. A Wiccan priest may
occultists. Each magical group sets the guidelines for oc- wear a headdress of antlers to symbolize fertility, fecun-
cult dress. There is not a specific literature, although a dity, and the God of Wicca. A high priest or other prac-
magical group may draw inspiration from books, movies, titioner may wear a necklace or torc decorated with
or even more mainstream cultural practices. appropriate spiritual symbols.
Some occult groups don garments symbolically col- The pentacle, a disk emblazoned with a five-pointed
ored according to a ceremony or rite. For example, a star known as a pentagram, is commonly worn by many
Northern European Pagan coven may don white clothes occultists as a token of affiliation to a nature-based pa-
to celebrate Yule rites and green clothes to celebrate gan religion. The pentagram’s points symbolize the ele-
Beltane festivals. Ceremonial magic groups, such as the ments of air, earth, wind, fire, and spirit, important
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, have an extensive concepts in northern European paganism. Another com-
magical color symbolism, and thus certain colored cloth- mon indicator of a belief in a nature-based religion, es-
ing is worn for a specific ritual. This is done in order to pecially witchcraft, is the Egyptian ankh pendant, worn
mentally link the practitioner to the rites being per- as a symbol of eternal life.
formed, raising awareness and effectiveness of the spiri- Practitioners of Teutonic religions may wear an up-
tual ritual. side-down T-shaped “Thor’s hammer.” This symbol is
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OILSKINS
used as an overall indicator of Asatru, a name sometimes bol of subculture affiliation, rather than as an indicator of
used for the Teutonic pantheon-based religion. religious or spiritual beliefs and practices.
See also Ceremonial and Festival Costumes; Religion and
Tattoos
Dress.
Tattoos may be used to indicate Pagan spiritual beliefs.
Celtic knotwork and swirls are common designs em-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ployed as indicators of a nature-based religion. Tattoos
Buckland, Raymond. Buckland’s Complete Book of Witchcraft.St.
can be utilized as proof of initiation or devotion. For ex-
Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn Publications, 1998.
ample, some worshippers of Odin may get a tattoo of
—. The Tree: The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft. York
three interlocking triangles as a sign of their devotion to
Beach, Me.: Samuel Weiser, 1985.
that Teutonic deity.
Campanelli, Pauline. Rites of Passage.St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn
Publications, 1995.
Contemporary Occult Stereotypes
Fitch, Ed. The Rites of Odin.St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn Publi-
The media generally depicts occultists wearing all-black
cations, 2002.
clothing, especially black robes or cloaks, and having pen-
Raven Wolf, Silver. Solitary Witch: The Ultimate Book of Shad-
tacles as jewelry. This stereotypical dress perpetuates the
ows for the New Generation.St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn Pub-
erroneous belief that the occultist is sinful or “evil.”
lications, 2003.
“Witch” stereotype. The “witch” is an enduring stereo-
Thomas A. Bilstad and Theresa M. Winge
type of female occult dress, exemplified by the Wicked
Witch of the West from The Wizard of Ozand the witch
antagonist from various Grimm’s fairy tales. The witch
OILSKINS Oilskin is a heavy cloth that has been made
stereotype consists of ragged, all-black clothing, cape,
waterproof by being impregnated with a hot solution of
conical wide-brimmed hat, and facial deformities. This
oil, gum, and wax to ensure maximum protection under
stereotype originated in medieval Christianity’s attempt
extreme conditions. It has traditionally been made into
to denigrate practitioners of Western Pagan religions.
the foul-weather apparel worn by sailors and fishermen.
The color black and physical deformities are associated
with the concepts of evil and sin, hence the witch stereo- Like many pieces of outerwear, the oilskin was born
type is “covered” in sin—black clothing and warts. out of necessity. Life upon the high seas was never easy
Around the turn of the twenty-first century, the popu- for those on board ship, and sailors devised a number of
larity of the Harry Potter book series by J. K. Rowling protective garments to deal with extreme conditions.
helped to alter the stereotype of the witch, replacing it During the early nineteenth century, it became common
with more diversified images and connotations. for sailors to smear themselves and the clothes they were
wearing with oil for protection from the cold and the
Warlock/Satanist stereotype. The “warlock/Satanist” from continuous ocean spray. One sailor at the time, Edward
cinema, such as those in the 1970s’ Hammerhorror films, Le Roy, discovered that worn-out sail canvas could be re-
is another Western occult dress stereotype. The male and cycled as outerwear. He devised a method of painting the
female Satanist stereotypes typically wear pentacle jewelry, fabric with a mix of linseed oil and wax so that it would
black robes, black hair, and black eyeliner; similar dress is become waterproof and suitable to be worn on deck in
used for the (male) warlock. Since Western cinema has his- foul-weather conditions. By the 1830s, the oilskin had
torically dressed the villain archetype in all-black clothing, become established as essential attire for rough weather
dressing the occultist in black visually communicates a sin- at sea for sailors, fishermen, and lifeboat men. The oil-
ister character to the audience. skins appeared to have a yellowish hue owing to the lin-
seed oil used to treat them. Overcoats, hats, jackets, and
Influences on Contemporary Dress trousers were also produced in this manner. When sailors
In the late twentieth century, some occultists wishing to came to shore they would often still be sporting their oil-
be recognized in mainstream religious and cultural are- skin attire, and the wearing of oilskins was adapted for
nas adopted stereotypical occult dress—black robes, pen- use by people on land. As news of the effectiveness of Le
tacle jewelry, black hair, and black eyeliner. While Roy’s new discovery spread, oilskin coats were soon be-
controversial among occult communities, they visually ing made by colonists in Australia, and by members of
publicized and communicated occult membership and the British army to protect their rifles during rainstorms.
beliefs by wearing this type of dress.
The oilskin coat is often known as a “slicker” in the
Occult dress has also influenced subcultures. The United States. Oilskin coats and trousers, now made of
dark-romantic Goths, some heavy metal music fans “head- rubberized or plastic-coated fabric, are still widely worn
bangers,” and a variety of vampire subcultures utilize ele- by fishermen and those in other maritime occupations,
ments of occult dress, especially stereotypical components, and have become standard rainwear for young children.
such as black clothing and pentacles. Occult dress styles They typically are made in a bright yellow color, echo-
are more commonly worn by these subcultures as a sym- ing the original linseed-oil hue of oilskin itself.
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OLEFIN FIBERS
Cattle drovers in Australia developed a version with can undertake. Most olefin fibers have a round cross-sec-
a fantail to protect the seat of the saddle and leg straps tion. They have strength comparable to nylon and poly-
to prevent the coat billowing out or blowing off while ester with a fiber tenacity of 5–7g/d (grams per denier).
riding in the harsh conditions of the outback. The coat, If olefin fibers are stretched or crushed they bounce back
that would become known as the Driza-Bone (the name well; they have good resilience and recovery properties.
recalls the dried-out bones of animals often found in the Olefin also doesn’t absorb moisture, and the fiber is the
deserts of the outback) also had extended sleeves to pro- lightest of all the common fibers. Its g/cc density is 0.92
tect the wearer’s arms when they were extended. Oilskins (grams per cubic centimeter). This means that fabrics of
of this style are still worn by motorcyclists, fishermen, a given bulk are lightweight, and olefin materials float in
and water-sports enthusiasts alike; the Driza-Bone has water. Weather resistance is limited, but stabilizers are
become one of the iconic garments of Australia. added to render this deficiency unimportant in practice.
The fiber is undyeable, and while much research has been
The Barbour is another version of an oiled and waxed
undertaken to achieve dyeability, few of these modifica-
jacket, the use of which has filtered through to the main-
tions have proved commercially successful. For this rea-
stream. Established in 1894, the Barbour Company’s
son, most colored olefin fibers are produced by the
eponymous lightweight coats have become a byword for
inclusion of pigment in the melt before spinning, in a
traditional British oilskins. Ideal for walking, yachting,
process commonly called “solution-dyeing” (although it
and fishing, Barbours come in three different weights.
is technically neither a solution nor a dyeing process).
The Barbour has also become synonymous with agricul-
The undyeability can also be viewed as inherent stain re-
ture, owing to its durablity, functionality, and most im-
sistance, and together with the good resilience, abrasion
portantly, its warmth and protection from the rain.
resistance, low density (i.e., good cover for a given
Not only do oilskins work as functional pieces of out- weight), and low cost make olefin a realistic alternative
erwear, they also look as good with a pair of jeans and to nylon for carpet fiber, and olefin is widely used in up-
loafers as they do with working overalls, heavy-duty boots holstery fabrics for the same reasons. The strength is suf-
and other protective dress. ficient to make olefin ropes and cords useful, and coupled
with low biodegradability and low cost, makes olefin
See alsoParka; Rainwear.
fibers a good choice for geotextile applications.
The lack of moisture absorption translates into
BIBLIOGRAPHY
“wickability,” and olefin fibers have thus been used for
Byrde, Penelope. The Male Image: Men’s Fashion in England,
athletic and hiking socks, cold weather underwear, and
1300–1970.London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd., 1979.
diaper liners. In many instances, polyester, which also has
Chenoune, Farid. A History of Men’s Fashion. Paris: Flammar-
a very low moisture retention but is dyeable, has taken
ion, 1993.
over those end-uses. Low cost renders the material dis-
De Marley, Diana. Fashion For Men: An Illustrated History.Lon-
posable, and olefin has been used for disposable surgical
don: B.T. Batsford, 1989.
gowns. It has tended to replace cellulosic fibers such as
Schoeffler, O. E., and William Gale. Esquire’s Encyclopedia of
jute in carpet backing and in sacking.
20th Century Fashions.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.
The technique of gel spinning has been used to pro-
Wilkins, Christobel. The Story of Occupational Costume. Poole,
duce polyethylene fibers in which the polymer chains are
Dorset: Blandford Press, 1982.
highly aligned along the length of the fiber. One com-
Tom Greatrex mercial example is sold as Spectra. The excellent align-
ment gives the material a very high strength, some 3 to
4 times stronger than polyester, and of the same order as
OLEFIN FIBERS Polyethylene and polypropylene para-aramid fibers such as Kevlar. Like Kevlar, it is thus
are familiar to consumers who recycle as PP, HDPE, and useful in cut protection, ballistic protection, and sailcloth.
LDPE in disposable plastic items. As fibers, the Federal While the lower weight of olefin is an advantage, the low
Trade Commission classifies them as “olefins”; this is also melting point may be considered a limitation.
the chemists’ term for the ethylene and propylene used
See also Acrylic and Modacrylic Fibers; Fibers; Techno-
to make them. Depending on the way the polymer is
Textiles.
made, polyethylene melts at 110° to 135°C (240° to
275°F), while the usual polypropylene melts at around
BIBLIOGRAPHY
165°C (330°F). For this reason, the vast majority of olefin Adnaur, Sabit, Wellington Sears Handbook of Industrial Textiles.
fibers are based on polypropylene, and even then, the low Lancaster, Pa.: Technomic, 1995.
melting point is a limitation. Gel-spun polyethylene Cook, J. Gordon. Handbook of Textile Fibers, Part 2: Man-Made
fibers are distinctly different and are discussed below. Fibers.5th ed. Durham, U.K.: Merrow, 1984.
Olefin fibers are cheap. The polymer is melted for Moncrieff, R. W. Man-Made Fibres,6th ed. London: Newnes-
Butterworth, 1975.
extrusion through a spinneret into fiber. Olefin produc-
tion is a relatively simple operation that small companies Martin Bide
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ORIENTALISM
Women wearing dresses by Japanese designer Chiyo Tanaka. After World War II, the West showed a re-emergence of interest
in other cultures, and Asian designers began to make an impact in the fashion world. © BETTMANN/CORBIS. REPRODUCEDBYPERMISSION.
ORIENTALISM The Orient has been a source of in- nies like Sevres in France and Meissen in Germany. Even
spiration for fashion designers since the seventeenth cen- plants, like the legendary flower from Turkey that led to
tury, when goods of India, China, and Turkey were first the “tulipmania” craze in Holland and the brewed leaf
widely seen in Western Europe. While the use of the that became the status drink of the well-to-do and evolved
term “Orientalism” has changed over time, it generally into the ritualized “high tea,” fueled the love of all things
refers to the appropriation by western designers of exotic from Asia.
stylistic conventions from diverse cultures spanning the
It was in the realm of fashion that the impact of “Ori-
Asian continent.
entalism” could also be profoundly felt. Platform shoes
Though luxury goods have been filtering into Eu- from central Asia led to the creation of the Venetian
rope from countries like China since ancient times, it was chopine in the sixteenth century. Textiles from all over
not until the great age of exploration that a wider array Asia, primarily China, India, and Turkey, inspired the
of merchandise from cultures throughout Asia found creation of fashions like the robe á la turqueriein the eigh-
their way to the west. For example, the importation of teenth century. This was a more extraordinary phenom-
Chinese ceramics exploded in the seventeenth century. enon since the fear of Turkish Islamic invaders was a
Not only did these wares remain popular for centuries, constant and imminent threat. Coupled with the threat
they also inspired the creation of stellar ceramic compa- of an invasion was a diametrically opposed view: the ro-
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ORIENTALISM
mantic notion of a far-distant land, such as Cathay (or
China), filled with genteel philosophers and lovers of art.
This idealized impression of China would continue un-
til the rise of the industrial revolution and European colo-
nialism in the early nineteenth century. The gritty reality
of ever-increasing business transactions between East and
West, as well as the ever-encroaching military dominance
by European powers in Asia was firmly cemented by the
middle 1800s.
As Queen Victoria ascended the throne of England
1837, then the most powerful empire in the world, she
oversaw an eclectic art style that would come to domi-
nate the remainder of the nineteenth century. The Vic-
torian era brought together many historical European
styles of the past, Gothic and Rococo for example, which
were sometimes surprisingly combined with elements
from cultures like Japan. The end result of one amalga-
mation, Gothic and Japanese, led to the creation of the
Aesthetic Movement. Fashion gowns reflected this blend:
smocked robes like medieval chemises were embroidered
with asymmetrically placed floral motifs of chrysanthe-
mums, two distinctly Japanese design elements.
The influence of Orientalism on fashion could be
seen in many other ways, both frivolous and profound.
For example, the fad for harem pants from Turkey ap-
peared in the form of fancy dress costume at balls, just
as the Zouave costume of North Africa found its way into
the wardrobes of some Southern soldiers fighting in the
American Civil War and the closets of European ladies.
On the other hand, items of dress from Asia would be-
come essential for women through the mid-nineteenth
Model in Scherrer 2004 haute couture design.Asian and other
century. Kashmiri shawls, originally woven in India then
ethnic influences began finding their way back into fashion lines
exported to the west in the late eighteenth century, be- in the 1960s and continued to make an impact into the early
came a ubiquitous part of the neoclassical costume. The 2000s. AP/WIDEWORLDPHOTOS. REPRODUCEDBYPERMISSION.
shawl was often paired with a white columnar dress made
of diaphanous, finely woven Indian cotton. Its popular-
ity inspired many weaving companies in Europe to cre- shapes and opulent decorative elements, couturiers in-
ate their version of this essential nineteenth-century corporated the vibrant color palette of Fauve artists such
wrap, later known as the paisley shawl. as Henri Matisse. Not only did designers create garments
The Orientalism trend reached an apex in the early with Orientalist influences, so did the modistes: turbans
twentieth century, and the sources for this mania for “all topped with aigrette or ostrich plumes and secured with
things oriental” ranged from nostalgia for the legends of jeweled ornaments were paired with either neoclassic
Persia and Arabia, as popularized by “A Thousand and columnar gowns or fantastical lampshade tunics.
One Nights,” to the Paris debut of Sergei Diaghilev’s Clothing created more in the realm of craft by artists
Ballets Russes in 1909. This burst of Orient-inspired cre- such as Mariano Fortuny and Monica Monaci Gallenga
ativity in the realm of fashion also had lesser-known also fused historical European and Asian styles into co-
sources, including the avant-garde art movement Fau- hesive aesthetic statements. Using silk velvet as a base,
vism and Japanese kimonos made expressly for the west- both Fortuny and Gallenga precisely incorporated textile
ern market. patterns from East Asia and the Islamic world for their
creations. The importance of craft also fueled the Euro-
French couturiers, such as Paul Poiret and Jeanne
pean and American fad for batik cloth. Both the technique
Paquin, were inspired by the Ballet Russes’ performances
for making resist-dyed fabrics like batik and the motifs
of “Cléopatre,” “Schéhérazade,” and “Le Dieu Bleu.”
perfected in cultures like Indonesia were created by arti-
This Russian dance company took Paris by storm with
sans on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean in the 1920s.
their revolutionary choreography, music, and costume
and set designs by the Russian artist Leon Bakst Marie Callot Gerber (1895–1937), the venerable
(1866–1924). In addition to these fantastic costume head of the leading couture house Callot Soeurs, was
5
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