Echinacea: The genus Echinacea (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

271 Pages·2004·8.29 MB·English

by  Sandra Carol Miller

Echinacea
The genus Echinacea
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles
Individual volumes in this series provide both industry and academia with in-depth coverage of one major
genus of industrial importance.
Series Edited by Dr Roland Hardman
Volume 1 Volume 22
Valerian, edited by Peter J. Houghton Eucalyptus, edited by John J.W. Coppen
Volume 2 Volume 23
Perilla, edited by He-ci Yu, Kenichi Kosuna Pueraria, edited by Wing Ming Keung
and Megumi Haga Volume 24
Volume 3 Thyme, edited by E. Stahl-Biskup and F. Sáez
Poppy, edited by Jenö Bernáth Volume 25
Volume 4 Oregano, edited by Spiridon E. Kintzios
Cannabis, edited by David T. Brown Volume 26
Volume 5 Citrus, edited by Giovanni Dugo and
Neem, edited by H.S. Puri Angelo Di Giacomo
Volume 6 Volume 27
Ergot, edited by Vladimír Kˇren and Geranium and Pelargonium, edited by
Ladislav Cvak Maria Lis-Balchin
Volume 7 Volume 28
Caraway, edited by Éva Németh Magnolia, edited by Satyajit D. Sarker and
Volume 8 Yuji Maruyama
Saffron, edited by Moshe Negbi Volume 29
Volume 9 Lavender, edited by Maria Lis-Balchin
Tea Tree, edited by Ian Southwell and Robert Lowe Volume 30
Volume 10 Cardamom, edited by P.N. Ravindran and
Basil, edited by Raimo Hiltunen and Yvonne Holm K.J. Madhusoodanan
Volume 11 Volume 31
Fenugreek, edited by Georgios Petropoulos Hypericum, edited by Edzard Ernst
Volume 12 Volume 32
Ginkgo biloba, edited by Teris A. Van Beek Taxus, edited by H. Itokawa and K.H. Lee
Volume 13 Volume 33
Black Pepper, edited by P.N. Ravindran Capsicum, edited by Amit Krish De
Volume 14 Volume 34
Sage, edited by Spiridon E. Kintzios Flax, edited by Alister Muir and
Volume 15 Niel Westcott
Ginseng, edited by W.E. Court Volume 35
Volume 16 Urtica, edited by Gulsel Kavalali
Mistletoe, edited by Arndt Büssing Volume 36
Volume 17 Cinnamon and Cassia, edited by
Tea, edited by Yong-su Zhen P.N. Ravindran, K. Nirmal Babu and
Volume 18 M. Shylaja
Artemisia, edited by Colin W. Wright Volume 37
Volume 19 Kava, edited by Yadhu N. Singh
Stevia, edited by A. Douglas Kinghorn Volume 38
Volume 20 Aloes, edited by Tom Reynolds
Vetiveria, edited by Massimo Maffei Volume 39
Volume 21 Echinacea, edited by Sandra Carol Miller
Narcissus and Daffodil, edited by Gordon R. Hanks Assistant Editor: He-ci Yu
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
Echinacea
The genus Echinacea
Edited by
Sandra Carol Miller
Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology
McGill University
Montreal, Canada
Assistant Editor — He-ci Yu
Hankintatukku Natural Health Products Co.
Helsinki, Finland
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Echinacea : the genus Echinacea / edited by Sandra Carol Miller.
p. cm. — (Medicinal and aromatic plants—industrial profiles ; v 39)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-28828-2 (alk. paper)
1. Echinacea (Plants) 2. Echinacea (Plants)—Therapeutic use. I. Miller, Sandra Carol.
II. Series.
QK495.C74E36 2004
615¢.32399—dc22 2003065555
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
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Contents
Series Preface
Preface
Contributors
Section I
The Genus Echinacea: Taxonomy and Genetics.
Chapter 1
Taxonomic History and Revision of the Genus Echinacea
Shannon E. Binns, John T. Arnason, and Bernard R. Baum
Chapter 2
A Review of Preliminary Echinacea Genetics and the Future Potential of Genomics
Kathleen A. McKeown
Section II
Cultivation of Genus Echinacea
Chapter 3
In Vitro Culture of Echinacea Species
Pamela S. Coker and N. Dwight Camper
Chapter 4
Cultivation in Europe
Bertalan Galambosi
Section III
The Chemistry of Genus Echinacea
Chapter 5
Phytochemistry of the Genus Echinacea
Jeffrey B. Harborne and Christine A. Williams
Chapter 6
The Chemistry of Antioxidant Constituents of Echinacea
Chun Hu, David D. Kitts, and Jerzy Zawistowski
Section IV
Analytical Evaluation in Genus Echinacea
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Chapter 7
Analytical Profiles of Echinacea Species.
Piergiorgio Pietta, Pierluigi Mauri, and Nicola Fuzzati
Chapter 8
Factors Affecting Echinacea Quality: Agronomy and Processing.
Nigel B. Perry, Ronald B.H. Wills, and Douglas L. Stuart
Chapter 9
Popularity, Diversity, and Quality of Echinacea
He-ci Yu and Matti Kaarlas
Section V
In Vivo and in Vitro Experimental Evidence for the Immuno-Enhancing
Activity of Echinacea Species
Chapter 10
Echinacea in Vivo: A Prophylactic Agent in Normal Mice and a Therapeutic Agent
in Leukemic Mice
Sandra C. Miller
Chapter 11
Effect of Echinacea on Cells Involved in Disease Defense
Helena Sestáková and Bohumil Turek
Chapter 12
In Vitro Immunopharmacology of Echinacea
Joseph A. Rininger, Kerry Ringer, and Mark Savarese
Chapter 13
Bioassays of Echinacea Extracts and Commercial Products.
Pamela S. Coker and N. Dwight Camper
Section VI
Clinical Assessment of the Medicinal Use of Echinacea Species Products:
Positive Effects and Contraindications.
Chapter 14
Echinacea: Quality, Uses, and Immunomodulating Activity from a
Phytotherapist’s Perspective
Kerry Bone
Chapter 15
The Use of Echinacea in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Critical Review
Moumita Sarkar and Gideon Koren
Chapter 16
Two Immunoenhancers Are Not Better than One
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Sandra C. Miller
Chapter 17
Adverse Reactions Associated with Echinacea and Other Asteraceae.
Raymond J. Mullins and Robert Heddle
Chapter 18
The Efficacy of Echinacea Tea
Elise B. Lindenmuth and G. Frank Lindenmuth
Section VII
The Use of Echinacea Products in Veterinary Practice
Chapter 19
Veterinary Applications of Echinacea Species: Research in Horses, Cattle,
Poultry, and Swine
Wendy Pearson
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
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Series Preface
There is increasing interest in industry, academia, and the health sciences in medicinal and aromatic
plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used by the public, many sciences
are involved. This series brings together information that is currently scattered through an ever
increasing number of journals. Each volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus, about which
an area specialist has assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market
trends and quality control.
Many industries are involved such as forestry, agriculture, chemical food, flavor, beverage,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and fragrance. The plant raw materials are roots, rhizomes, bulbs, leaves,
stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits, and seeds. These yield gums, resins, essential (volatile) oils,
fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts, and spices for medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these
commodities are traded worldwide. A dealer’s market report for an item may say “Drought in the
country of origin has forced up prices.”
Natural products do not mean safe products and account of this has to be taken by the above
industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of plants that are approved for
use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products.
The assessment of safe to use starts with the harvested plant material, which has to comply
with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits of, radioactive
material, heavy metals. aflatoxic, pesticide residue, as well as the required level of active principle.
This analytical control is costly and tends to exclude small batches of plant material. Large-scale
contracted mechanized cultivation with designated seed or plantlets is now preferable.
Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the plant’s ability to
overcome disease, climatic stress, and the hazards caused by mankind. Such methods as in vitro
fertilization, meristem cultures, and somatic embryogenesis are used. The transfer of sections of
DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of some end-uses of the plant material.
Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supplying organically
farmed medicinal plants, herbs, and spices. The European Union directive (CVO/EU No. 2092/91)
details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls to be carried out at all stages of
production and processing of organic products.
Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology leads to medicinal potential. Examples are
the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison, curare, from species of Chondrodendron, and the
anti-malarials derived from species of Cinbona and Artemisia. The methods of detection of phar-
macological activity have become increasingly reliable and specific, frequently involving enzymes
in bioassays and avoiding the use of laboratory animals. By using bioassay-linked fractionation of
crude plant juices or extracts, compounds can be specifically targeted that, for example, inhibit
blood platelet aggregation, or have anti-tumor, anti-viral, or any other required activity. With the
assistance of robone devices all the members of a genus may be readily screened. However, the
plant material must be fully authenticated by a specialist.
The medicinal traditions of ancient civilizations such as those of China and India have a large
armamenoaria of plants in their pharmacopoeias that are used throughout southeast Asia. A similar
situation exists in Africa and South America. Thus, a very high percentage of the world’s population
relies on medicinal and aromatic plants for their medicine. Western medicine is also responding.
Already in Germany all medical practitioners have to pass an examination in phytotherapy before
being allowed to practice. It is noticeable that throughout Europe and the U.S.A., medical, pharmacy,
and health-related schools are increasingly offering training in phytotherapy.
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Multinational pharmaceutical companies have become less enamored of the single compound
magic bullet cure. The high costs of such ventures and the endless competition from “me too”
compounds from rival companies often discourage the attemp. Independent phytomedicine com-
panies have been very strong in Germany. However, by the end of 1995, eleven (almost all) had
been acquired by the multinational pharmaceutical firms, acknowledging the lay public’s growing
demand for phytomedicines in the Western World.
The business of dietary supplements in the western world has expanded from the health store
to the pharmacy. Alternative medicine includes plant-based products. Appropriate measure to ensure
the quality, safety, and efficacy of these either already exist or are being answered by greater
legislative control by such bodies as the Food and Drug Administration of the U.S.A. and the
European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products, based in London.
In the U.S.A., the Dietary Supplement and Health Education Act of 1994 recognized the class
of phytotherapeutic agents derived from medicinal and aromatic plants. Furthermore, under public
pressure, the U.S. Congress set up an Office of Alternative Medicine and this office in 1994 assisted
the filing of several investigational new drug (IND) applications, required for clinical trials of some
Chinese herbal preparations. The significance of these applications was that each Chinese prepa-
ration involved several plants and yet was handled as a single IND. A demonstration of the
contribution to efficacy of each ingredient of each plant was not required. This was a major step
forward toward more sensible regulations in regard to phytomedicines.
My thanks are due to the staffs of CRC Press who have made this series possible and especially
to the volume editors and their chapter contributors for the authoritative information.
Roland Hardman
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC